ESSNA SKYHAWK 1973

Section I lists, in Pilot's Check List form, the steps necessary to operate your aircraft efficiently and safely. It is not a check list in its true form as it is considerably longer, but it does cover briefly all of the points that you should know for a typical flight. An abbreviated check list covering the "Before Take-Off" and "Before Landing" phases of aircraft operation is provided on a plastic card and normally stowed in the map compartment. This abbreviated check list is a convenient reference of key items to be rechecked immediately prior to taxiing into position for take-off and before entering the final approach for landing. The flight and operational characteristics of your aircraft are normal in all respects. There are no "unconventional"characteristics or opera- tions that need to be mastered. All controls respond in the normal way within the entire range of operation. All airspeeds mentioned in Sections I, II and III are indicated airspeeds. Corresponding calibrated airspeed may be obtained from the Airspeed Correction Table in Section VI. BEFORE ENTERING THE AIRPLANE. (1) Make an exterior inspection in accordance with figure 1-1. 1-1 5 7 6 4 EXTERIOR INSPECTION 2 Note Visually check aircraft for general condition during walk- around inspection. In cold weather, remove even small accumulations of frost, ice or snow from wing, tail and control surfaces. Also, make sure that control surfaces contain no internal accumulations of ice or debris. If night flight is planned, check operation of all lights, and make sure a flashlight is available. a. Remove control wheel lock. b. Check ignition switch OFF. c. Turn on master switch and check fuel quantity indicators; then turn off master switch. d. Check fuel selector valve handle on BOTH. e. Check baggage door for security. Lock with key if children are to occupy child's seat. ngure 1-2 a. Remove rudder gust lock, if installed. b. Disconnect tail tie-down. c. Check control surfaces for freedom of movement and security. a. Check aileron for freedom of movement and security. a. Disconnect wing tie-down. b. Check main wheel tire for proper inflation. c. Visually check fuel quantity; then check fuel filler cap secure. a. Check oil level. Do not operate with less than six quarts. Fill to eight quarts for extended flights. b. Before first flight of day and after each refueling, pull out strainer drain knob for about four seconds to clear fuel strainer of possible water and sediment. Check strainer drain closed. If water is observed, there is a possibility that the fuel tank sumps contain water. Thus, the fuel tank sump drain plugs and fuel selector valve drain plug should be removed to check for the presence of water. c. Check propeller and spinner for nicks and security, d. Check landing light for condition and cleanliness. e. Check carburetor air filter for restrictions by dust or other foreign matter. f. Check nose wheel strut and tire for proper inflation. g. Disconnect tie-down rope. h. Inspect flight instrument static source opening on side of fuselage for stoppage (left side only). a. Check main wheel tire for proper inflation. b. Visually check fuel quantity, then check fuel filler cap secure. a. Remove pitot tube cover, if installed, and check pitot tube opening for stoppage. b. Check fuel tank vent opening for stoppage. c. Check stall warning vent opening for stoppage. d. Disconnect wing tie-down, a. Check aileron for freedom of movement and security. 1-1. 1-3 BEFORE STARTING THE ENGINE. (1) Seats, Seat Belts and Shoulder Harnesses -- Adjust and lock. (2) Fuel Selector Valve -- BOTH. (3) Brakes -- Test and set. (4) Radios and Electrical Equipment -- OFF. STARTING THE ENGINE. (1) Mixture -- Rich. (2) Carburetor Heat -- Cold. (3) Primer -- 2 - 6 strokes as required (noneif engine is warm). Close and lock primer. (4) Throttle -- Open 1/8". (5) Master Switch -- ON. (6) Propeller Area -- Clear. (7) Ignition Switch -- START (release when engine starts). (8) Oil Pressure -- Check. BEFORE TAKE-OFF. (1) Parking Brake -- Set. (2) Flight Controls -- Check for free and correct movement. (3) Fuel Selector Valve -- BOTH. (4) Elevator Trim Control Wheel -- TAKE-OFF setting. (5) Throttle Setting -- 1700 RPM. (6) Engine Instruments and Ammeter -- Check. (7) Suction Gage -- Check (4.6 to 5.4 inches of mercury). (8) Magnetos -- Check (RPM drop should not exceed 125 RPM on either magneto or 50 RPM differential between magnetos). (9) Carburetor Heat -- Check operation. (10) Flight Instruments and Radios -- Set. (11) Optional Autopilot or Wing Leveler -- Off. (12) Cabin Doors and Window -- Closed and locked. TAKE-OFF. NORMAL TAKE-OFF. (1) Wing Flaps -- 0°. (2) Carburetor Heat -- Cold. 1-4 (3) Power -- Full throttle. (4) Elevator Control -- Lift nose wheel at 60 MPH. (5) Climb Speed -- 75 to 85 MPH. MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE TAKE-OFF. (1) Wing Flaps -- 0°. (2) Carburetor Heat -- Cold. (3) Brakes -- Apply. (4) Power -- Full throttle. (5) Brakes -- Release. (6) Airplane Attitude -- Slightly tail low. (7) Climb Speed -- 68 MPH until all obstacles are cleared. CLI M B. (1) Airspeed -- 80 to 90 MPH. NOTE If a maximum performance climb is necessary, use speeds shown in the Maximum Rate-Of-Climb Data chart in Section VI. (2) Power -- Full throttle. (3) Mixture -- Full rich (mixturemay be leaned above 3000 feet). CR UI SIN G. (1) Power -- 2200 to 2700 RPM. NOTE Maximum cruise RPM varies with altitude. For details, refer to Section IV. (2) Elevator Trim Control Wheel -- Adjust. (3) Mixture -- Lean for maximum RPM. 1-5 LET-DOWN. (1) Mixture -- Rich. (2) Power -- As desired. (3) Carburetor Heat -- As required to prevent carburetor icing. BEFORE LANDING. (1) Fuel Selector Valve -- BOTH (2) Mixture -- Rich. (3) Carburetor Heat -- Apply full heat before closing throttle. (4) Wing Flaps -- As desired. (5) Airspeed -- 70 to 80 MPH (flaps up), 65 to 75 MPH (flaps down) BALKED LANDING (GO-AROUND). (1) Power -- Full throttle. (2) Carburetor Heat -- Cold. (3) Wing Flaps -- Retract to 20°. (4) Upon reaching an airspeed of approximately 65 MPH, retract flaps slowly. NORMAL LANDING. (1) Touchdown -- Main wheels first. (2) Landing Roll -- Lower nose wheel gently. (3) Braking -- Minimum required. AFTER LANDING. (1) Wing Flaps -- Up. (2) Carburetor Heat -- Cold. 1-6 SECURING AIRCRAFT. (1) Parking Brake -- Set. (2) Radios and Electrical Equipment -- OFF. (3) Mixture -- Idle cut-off (pulledfull out). (4) Ignition and Master Switch -- OFF. (5) Control Lock -- Installed. 1-7 INSTRUMENT PANEL 1 2 3 5 7 8L 9 10 11 12 13 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 26 21 25 '22 24 23 1. Flight Instrument Group 12. Ammeter 23. Fuel Selector Valve Handle 2. Aircraft Registration Number 13. Optional Instrument and 24. Elevator Trim Control Wheel 3. Suction Gage (Opt.) Radio Space (Opt.) 25. Throttle 4. Marker Beacon Indicator 14. Map Compartment 26. Carburetor Heat Control Lights and Switches (Opt.) 15. Wing Flap Position Indicator 27. Electrical Switches 5. Tachometer 16. Cigar Lighter 28. Circuit Breakers 6. Magnetic Compass 17. Cabin Air and Heat Controls 29. Parking Brake Handle 7. Radio Selector Switches (Opt.) 18. Wing Flap Switch 30. Ignition/Starter Switch 8. Hear View Mirror (Opt.) 19. Static Pressure Alternate 31. Instrument and Radio Dial 9. Radios and Transponder (Opt.) Source Valve (Opt.) Light Rheastats 10. Fuel and Oil Gages 20. Mixture Control Knob 32. Master Switch 11. Over-Voltage Warning 21. Autopilot Control Unit (Opt.) 33. Primer Light 22. Microphone (Opt.) 34. Phone Jack Figure 2-1. 1-8 Jectioil H DESCRIPTION AND OPERATING DETAILS The following paragraphs describe the systems and equipment whose function and operation is not obvious when sitting in the aircraft. This section also covers in somewhat greater detail some of the items listed in Check List form in Section I that require further explanation. FUEL SYSTEM. Fuel is supplied to the engine from two tanks, one in each wing. With the fuel selector valve on BOTH, the total usable fuel for all flight condi- tions is 38 gallons for the standard tanks and 48 gallons for the optional long range tanks. Fuel from each wing tank flows by gravity to a selector valve. De- pending upon the setting of the selector valve, fuel from the left, right, or both tanks flows through a fuel strainer and carburetor to the engine induction system. The fuel selector valve should be in the BOTH position for take-off, climb, landing, and maneuvers that involve prolonged slips or skids. Operation from either LEFT or RIGHT tank is reserved for cruising flight. NOTE With low fuel (1/8th tank or less), a prolonged steep de- scent (1500feet or more) with partial power, full flaps, and 80 MPH or greater should be avoided due to the pos- sibility of the fuel tank outlets being uncovered, causing temporary fuel starvation. If starvation occurs, leveling the nose should restore power within 20 seconds. NOTE When the fuel selector valve handle is in the BOTH po- sition in cruising flight, unequal fuel flow from each 2-1 FUEL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC LEFT FUEL TANK RIGHT FUEL TANK VENT SELECTOR VALVE TO ENSURE MAXlMUM FUEL CAPACITY Y WHEN REFUELING, PLACE THE FUEL SELECTOR VALVE IN EITHER LEFT OR RIGHT POSITION TO PREVENT CROSS- FEEDING. TO FUEL ENGINE V STRAINER ENGINE - PRIMER CODE FUEL SUPPLY VENT MECHANICAL CARBURETOR THROTTLE LINKAGE MIXTURE TO CONTROL ENGINE KNOB Figure 2-2. 2-2 tank may occur if the wings are not maintained exactly level. Resulting wing heaviness can be alleviated gradually by turning the selector valve handle to the tank in the "heavy" wing. NOTE It is not practical to measure the time required to con- sume all of the fuel in one tank, and, after switching to the opposite tank, expect an equal duration from the remaining fuel. The airspace in both fuel tanks is in- terconnected by a vent line (figure 2-2) and, therefore, some sloshing of fuel between tanks can be expected when the tanks are nearly full and the wings are not level. For fuel system servicing information, refer to Lubrication and Servicing Procedures in Section V. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM. Electrical energy is supplied by a 14-volt, direct-current system powered by an engine-driven alternator (see figure 2-3). A 12- volt bat- tery is located on the left-hand forward portion of the firewall. Power is supplied to all electrical circuits through a split bus bar, one side con- taining electronic systems and the other side having general electrical systems. Both sides of the bus are on at all times except when either an external power source is connected or the ignition/starter switch is turned on; then a power contactor is automatically activated to open the circuit to the electronic bus. Isolating the electronic circuits in this manner pre- vents harmful transient voltages from damaging the transistors in the electronic equipment. MASTER SWITCH. The master switch is a split-rocker type switch labeled MASTER, and is ON in the up position'and OFF in the down position. The right half of the switch, labeled BAT, controls all electrical power to the airplane. The left half, labeled ALT controls the alternator. Normally, both sides of the master &ch should be used simulta- neously; however, the BAT side of the switch could be turned ON sepa- rately to check equipment while on the ground. The ALT side of the 2-3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC RECULAIOR AtifRNATO 10 TOOVER-vot1AGE WARNING OVE PRIMARY LIGHT VOtlAGE BUS . wAan No 10 ovER-votTAGE SENsoR LlGHT Att Fato AND MASTER SWIICH RCU RE KER TO AUTOMATIC PILOT (OPT} AUTO Pit01 OVER- VOLTAGE C GAR LlGHTER SENSOR I (WITH ClRCUlf BREAKER) STARTER REVER$E POLARITY TO RAD O (OPT} CONIACIOR CONTACTOR GROUND SERVICE CEPTACLE TO RAADIO (OPT) AUD TO AUDIO AMPLiflER (OPT) FLtGHT FROM ALIERNA109 BUS HOUR RECORDER SPLM BUS 24 TO LANDING LIGHT (OPI) CONTACTOg LAND L1 (NORMAtt.Y GOSED) TO NAVIGATION LIGHTS AND OPTIONAL CONTROL WHEEL PRE URE 10 MAP LlGHl - IKH NAV 10 IRANSMlllER RELAY (OPT) SIART£R - (OPI) Li 10 IGNiTION..5TARTER SWITCH BAllERY CONTACIOR NAVIGATION - 6 TO FLASHING BEACON (OPT) LíGHT CIRCull 10 DOOR POSI MAP LIGHT (OPT} CLOCK (OPT) REY I HIOPilONAL INT t GHCOMPASS ANO iNSIRUMENT IGNRION- SAITERY STARIER SWtT<H NDifuEL QUAANTITYMINDICATORS TO WING FLAP SYSffM MAGNETOS FLAP 10 TO STROBE LIGHTS (OPT) Sikost LI CODE 18 TO PITOT HEAT SYSifM (OPT) CIRCUll 6REAKER [PUSH TO RESET) C PEAC1 a O SE F ER ESISTOR 1 OPTIONANL CO UtNA10R OR coono ‡NDICATOR Figure 2-3. 2-4 switch, when placed in the OFF position, removes the alternator from the electrical system. With this switch in the OFF position, the entire electrical load is placed on the battery. Continued operation with the alternator switch OFF will reduce battery power low enough to open the battery contactor, remove power from the alternator field, and prevent alternator restart. AMMETER. The ammeter indicates the flow of current, in amperes, from the alternator to the battery or from the battery to the aircraft electrical system. When the engine is operating and the master switch is ON, the ammeter indicates the charging rate applied to the battery. In the event the alternator is not functioning or the electrical load exceeds the output of the alternator, the ammeter indicates the discharge rate of the battery. OVER-VOLTAGE SENSOR AND WARNING LIGHT. The aircraft is equipped with an automatic over-voltage protection system consisting of an over-voltage sensor behind the instrument panel and a red warning light, labeled HIGH VOLTAGE, under the oil tempera- ture and pressure gages. In the event an over-voltage condition occurs, the over-voltage sen- sor automatically removes alternator field current and shuts down the alternator. The red warning light will then turn on, indicating to the pilot that the alternator is not operating and the aircraft battery is supply- ing all electrical power. The over-voltage sensor may be reset by turning the master switch off and back on again. If the warning light does not illuminate, normal alternator charging has resumed; however, if the light does illuminate again, a malfunction has occurred, and the flight should be terminated as soon as practical. The over-voltage warning light may be tested by momentarily turning off the ALT portion of the master switch and leaving the BAT portion turned on. CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND FUSES. The majority of electrical circuits in the airplane are protected by "push-to-reset" circuit breakers mounted on the instrument panel. Ex- 2-5 ceptions to this are the optional clock, flight hour recorder, and battery contactor closing (external power) circuits which have fuses mounted adjacent to the battery. Also, the cigar lighter is protected by a man- ually reset type circuit breaker mounted directly on the back of the lighter behind the instrument panel. When more than one radio is installed, the radio transmitter relay (whichis a part of the radio installation) is protected by the navigation lights circuit breaker labeled NAV LTS. It is important to remember that any malfunction in the navigation lights system which causes the cir- cuit breaker to open will de-activate both the navigation lights and the transmitter relay. In this event, the navigation light switch should be turned off to isolate the circuit; then reset the circuit breaker to re- activate the transmitter relay and permit its usage. Do not turn on the navigation lights switch until the malfunction has been corrected. LIGHTING EQUIPMENT. EXTERIOR LIGHTING. Conventional navigation lights are located on the wing tips and top of the rudder. Optional lighting includes a single landing light in the cowl nose cap, a flashing beacon on the top of the vertical fin, a strobe light on each wing tip, and two courtesy lights, one under each wing, just out- board of the cabin door. The courtesy lights are controlled by the dome light switch located on the overhead console. All other exterior lights are controlled by rocker type switches located on the left switch and control panel. The switches are ON in the up position and OFF in the down po- sition. The flashing beacon should not be used when flying through clouds or overcast; the flashing light reflected from water droplets or particles in the atmosphere, particularly at night, can produce vertigo and loss of orientation. The two high intensity strobe lights will enhance anti-collision pro- tection. However, the lights should be turned off when taxiing in the vicinity of other aircraft, or during.flight through clouds, fog or haze. 2-6 INTERIOR LIGHTING. Illumination of the instrument panel is provided by red flood lighting in the forward portion of the overhead console. The magnetic compass and radio equipment have integral lighting. A dual rheostat control on the left switch and control panel operates these lights. The inner knob, la- beled PANEL, operates the instrument panel and compass lighting. The outer knob, labeled RADIO,controls all radio lighting. A cabin dome light is located in the overhead console, and is operated by a switch adjacent to the light. To turn the light on, move the switch to the right. This will also operate the optional courtesy lights. An optional map light may be mounted on the bottom of the pilot's control wheel. The light illuminates the lower portion of the cabin, just forward of the pilot and is helpful when checking maps and other flight data during night operations. To operate the light, first turn on the NAV LT Switch, then adjust the map light's intensity with the disk type rheostat control located on the bottom of the control wheel. A doorpost map light is also offered as optional equipment, and is located at the top of the left forward doorpost. The light contains both red and white bulbs, and may be positioned to illuminate any area de- sired by the pilot. A switch on the left forward doorpost is labeled RED, OFF, and WHITE. Placing the switch in the top position will provide a red light. In the bottom position, standard white lighting is provided. The center position is OFF. WING FLAP SYSTEM The wing flaps are electrically operated by a flap motor located in the right wing. Flap position is controlled by a switch, labeled WING FLAPS on the lower center portion of the instrument panel. Flap posi- tion is shown by an indicator on the lower right portion of the instrument panel below the right control wheel position. To extend the wing flaps, the flap switch must be depressed and held in the DOWN position until the desired degree of extension is reached. Releasing the switch allows it to return to the center off position. Normal full flap extension in flight will require approximately 9 seconds. After the flaps reach maximum extension or retraction, limit switches will automatically shut off the flap motor. 2-7 To retract the flaps, place the flap switch in the UP position. The switch will remain in the UP position without manual assistance due to an over-center design of the switch. Full flap retraction in flight requires approximately 7 seconds. More gradual flap retraction can be accom- plished by intermittent operation of the flap switch to the UP position. After full retraction, the switch is normally returned to the center off position. CABIN HEATING, VENTILATING AND DEFROSTING SYSTEM. For cabin ventilation, pull the CABIN AIR knob out. To raise the air temperature, pull the CABIN HT knob out approximately 1/4" to 1/2" for a small amount of cabin heat. Additional heat is available by pulling the knob out farther; maximum heat is available with the CABIN HT knob pulled out and the CABIN AIR knob pushed full in. When no heat is desired in the cabin, the CABIN HT knob is pushed full in. Front cabin heat and ventilating air is supplied by outlet holes spaced across a cabin manifold just forward of the pilot's and copilot's feet. Rear cabin heat and air is supplied by two ducts from the manifold, one extending down each side of the cabin to an outlet at the front door post af floor level. Windshield defrost air is also supplied by a duct leading from the cabin manifold. Separate adjustable ventilators supply additional air; one near each upper corner of the windshield supplies air for the pilot and copilot, and two optional ventilators in the rear cabin ceiling supply air to the rear seat passengers. SHOULDER HARNESSES. Shoulder harnesses are provided as standard equipment for the pilot and front seat passenger, and as optional equipment for the rear seat passengers. Each front seat harness is attached to a rear door post just above window line and is stowed above the cabin door. When stowed, the har- 2-8 ness is held in place by two retaining clips, one above the door and one on the front of the forward door post. When stowing the harness, place it behind both retaining clips and secure the loose end behind the retaining clip above the door. The optional rear seat shoulder harnesses are at- tached just below the lower corners of the rear window. Each rear seat harness is stowed behind a retaining clip located at the bottom edge of the aft side window. To use the front and rear seat shoulder harnesses, fasten and adjust the seat belt first. Remove the harness from the stowed position, and lengthen as required by pulling on the end of the harness and the narrow release strap. Snap the harness metal stud firmly into the retaining slot adjacent to the seat belt buckle. Then adjust to length by pulling down on the free end of the harness. A properly adjusted harness will permit the occupant to lean forward enough to sit completely erect but is tight enough to prevent excessive forward movement and contact with objects during sudden deceleration. Also, the pilot will want the freedom to reach all controls easily. Releasing and removing the shoulder harness is accomplished pulling upward on the narrow release strap and removing the harness stud from the slot in the seat belt buckle. In an emergency, the shoulder harness may be removed by releasing the seat belt first and pulling the harness over the head by pulling up on the release strap. STARTING ENGINE. During engine starting, open the throttle approximately 1/8 inch. In warm temperatures, one or two strokes of the primer should be sufficient. In cold weather, up to six strokes of the primer may be necessary. If the engine is warm, no priming will be required. In extremely cold tem- peratures, it may be necessary to continue priming while cranking the engine. Weak intermittent firing followed by puffs of black smoke from the exhaust stack indicates overpriming or flooding. Excess fuel can be cleared from the combustion chambers by the following procedure: Set the mixture control full lean and the throttle full open; then crank the engine through several revolutions with the starter. Repeat the start- ing procedure without any additional priming. If the engine is underprimed (most likely in cold weather with a cold 2-9 TAXIING DIAGRAM USE UP AILERON USE UP AILERON UR ING AENI TOR EURHR LNEL NDATOR USE DOWN AILEHON USE DOWN AILERON ON I H WING AND ON HH WING AND DOWN ELEL ATOR DOWN ELEVATOR CODE NOTE WIND DIRECTION strong quartering tail winds require caution. Avoid sudden bursts of the throttle and sharp braking when the airplane is in this attitude. Use the steerable nose wheel and rudder to rnaintain direction. Figure 2-4. 2-10 engine) it will not fire at all, and additional priming will be necessary. As soon as the cylinders begin to fire, open the throttle slightly to keep it running. After starting, if the oil gage does not begin to show pressure within 30 seconds in the summertime and about twice that long in very cold weather, stop engine and investigate. Lack of oil pressure can cause serious engine damage. After starting, avoid the use of carburetor heat unless icing conditions prevail. NOTE Additional details for cold weather starting and operation may be found under Cold Weather Operation in this section. TAXIING. When taxiing, it is important that speed and use of brakes be held to a minimum and that all controls be utilized (see Taxiing Diagram, figure 2-4) to maintain directional control and balance. The carburetor heat control knob should be pushed full in during all ground operations unless heat is absolutely necessary. When the knob is pulled out to the heat position, air entering the engine is not filtered. Taxiing over loose gravel or cinders should be done at low engine speed to avoid abrasion and stone damage to the propeller tips. BEFORE TAKE-OFF. WARM-UP. If the engine accelerates smoothly, the aircraft is ready for take-off. Since the engine is closely cowled for efficient in-flight engine cooling, precautions should be taken to avoid overheating during prolonged engine operation on the ground. Also, long periods of idling may cause fouled spark plugs. MAGNETO CHECK. The magneto check should be made at 1700 RPM as follows. Move 2-11 ignition switch first to R position and note RPM. Next move switch back to BOTH to clear the other set of plugs. Then move switch to the L posi- tion, note RPM and return the switch to the BOTH position. RPM drop should not exceed 125 RPM on either magneto or show greater than 50 RPM differential between magnetos. If there is a doubt concerning opera- tion of the ignition system, RPM checks at higher engine speeds will usu- ally confirm whether a deficiency exists. An absence of RPM drop may be an indication of faulty grounding of one side of the ignition system or should be cause for suspicion that the magneto timing is set in advance of the setting specified. ALTERNATOR CHECK. Prior to flights where verification of proper alternator and voltage regulator operation is essential (suchas night or instrument flights), a positive verification can be made by loading the electrical system momen- tarily (3 to 5 seconds) with the optional landing light (if so equipped), or by operating the wing flaps during the engine runup (1700RPM). The am- meter will remain within a needle width of zero if the alternator and vol- tage regulator are operating properly. TAKE-OFF. POWER CHECK. It is important to check full-throttle engine operation early in the take-off run. Any signs of rough engine operation or sluggish engine acceleration is good cause for discontinuing the take-off. If this occurs, you are justified in making a thorough full-throttle, static runup before another take-off is attempted. The engine should run smoothly and turn approximately 2270 to 2370 RPM with carburetor heat off and mixture full rich. NOTE Carburetor heat should not be used during take-off unless it is absolutely necessary for obtaining smooth engine acceleration. Full-throttle runups over loose gravel are especially harmful to pro- peller tips. When take-offs must be made over a gravel surface, it is 2-12 very important that the throttle be advanced slowly. This allows the air- plane to start rolling before high RPM is developed; and the gravel will be blown back of the propeller rather than pulled into it. When unavoid- able small dents appear in the propeller blades, they should be immedi- ately corrected as described in Section V under propeller care. Prior to take-off from fields above 3000 feet elevation, the mixture should be leaned to give maximum RPM in a full-throttle, static runup. WING FLAP SETTINGS. Normal and obstacle clearance take-offs are performed with wing flaps up. The use of 10° flaps will shorten the ground run approximately 10°/o, but this advantage is lost in the climb to a 50-foot obstacle. There- fore, the use of 10° flaps is reserved for minimum ground runs or for take-off from soft or rough fields. If 10° of flaps are used for mînimum ground runs, it is preferable to leave them extended rather than retract them in the climb to the obstacle. In this case, use an obstacle clearance speed of 65 MPH. As soon as the obstacle is cleared, the flaps may be retracted as the airplane accelerates to the normal flaps-up climb speed of 80 to 90 MPH. During a high altitude take-off in hot weather where climb would be marginal with 10° flaps, it is recommended that the flaps not be used for take-off. Flap settings greater than 10° are not recommended at any time for take-off. PERFORMANCE CHARTS. Consult the Take-Off Data chart in Section VI for take-off distances under various gross weight, altitude, headwind, temperature, and run- way surface conditions. CROSSWIND TAKE-OFFS. Take-offs into strong crosswinds normally are performed with the minimum flap setting necessary for the field length to minimize the drift angle immediately after take-off. The airplane is accelerated to a speed slightly higher than normal, then pulled off abruptly to prevent possible settling back to the runway while drifting. When clear of the ground, make a coordinated turn into the wind to correct for drift. 2-13 ENROUTE CLIMB. CLIMB DATA. For detailed data, refer to the Maximum Rate-Of-Climb Data chart in Section VI. CLIMB SPEEDS. Normal climbs are performed af 80 to 90 MPH with flaps up and full throttle for best engine cooling. The mixture should be full rich below 3000 feet and may be leaned above 3000 feet for smoother engine opera- tion. The maximum rate-of-climb speeds range from 90 MPH at sea level to 79 MPH at 10, 000 feet. If an enroute obstruction dictates the use of a steep climb angle, climb at 75 MPH with flaps retracted. NOTE Steep climbs at low speeds should be of short duration to improve engine cooling. CRUISE. Normal cruising is done.between 65% and 75% power. The power settings required to obtain these powers at various altitudes and outside air temperatures can be determined by using your Cessna Power Com- puter or the OPERATIONAL DATA, Section VI. Cruising can be done more efficiently at high altitudes because of lower air density and therefore higher true airspeeds for the same power. This is illustrated in the table below, which shows performance at 75% power at various altitudes. All figures are based on lean mixture, 38 gallons of fuel (no reserve), zero wind, standard atmospheric conditions, and 2300 pounds gross weight. To achieve the lean mixture fuel consumption figures shown in See- tion VI, the mixture should be leaned as follows: pull mixture control out until engine RPM peaks and begins to fall off, then enrichen slightly back to peak RPM. Carburetor ice, as evidenced by an unexplained drop in RPM, can be removed by application of full carburetor heat. Upon regaining the origi- 2-14 MAXIMUM CRUISE SPEED PERFORMANCE 75% POWER RANGE ALTITUDE RPM TRUE AIRSPEED (38 GAL) SEA LEVEL 2490 123 575 5000 ft. 2600 128 600 9000 ft. FULL THROTTLE 132 620 nal RPM (withheat off), use the minimum amount of heat (by trial and error) to prevent ice from forming. Since the heated air causes a richer mixture, readjust the mixture setting when carburetor heat is to be used continuously in cruise flight. The use of full carburetor heat is recommended during flight in heavy rain to avoid the possibility of engine stoppage due to excessive water in- gestion or carburetor ice. The mixture setting should be readjusted for smoothest operation. In extremely heavy rain, the use of partial carburetor heat (control approximately 2/3 out), and part throttle (closed at least one inch), may be necessary to retain adequate power. Power changes should be made cautiously followed by prompt adjustment of the mixture for smoothest operation. STALLS. The stall characteristics are conventional and aural warning is pro- vided by a stall warning horn which sounds between 5 and 10 MPH above the stall in all configurations. Power-off stall speeds at maximum gross weight and aft c. g. posi- tion are presented on page 6-2 as calibrated airspeeds since indicated airspeeds are unreliable near the stall. SPINS. Intentional spins are approved in this aircraft in the utility category only. Although this aircraft is inherently resistant to spins, the follow- 2-15 ing techniques may be used to perform intentional spins for training or practice. To obtain a clean entry, decelerate the aircraft at a faster rate than is used for stalls. Then, just as the stall occurs, apply full up ele- vator, full rudder in the desired spin direction, and momentarily use full engine power. As the aircraft begins to spin, reduce the power to idle and maintain full pro-spin elevator and rudder deflections. The applica- tion of ailerons in the direction of the desired spin may also help obtain a clean entry. During extended spins of two to three turns or more, the spin will tend to change into a spiral, particularly to the right. This will be ac- companied by an increase in airspeed and gravity loads on the aircraft. If this occurs, recovery should be accomplished quickly by leveling the wings and recovering from the resulting dive. To recover from an intentional or inadvertent spin, use the following procedure: (1) Retard throttle to idle position. (2) Apply full rudder opposite to the direction of rotation. (3) After one-fourth turn, move the control wheel forward of neutral in a brisk motion. (4) As the rotation stops, neutralize the rudder, and make a smooth recovery from the resulting dive. Intentional spins with flaps extended are prohibited. LANDINGS. Normal landings are made power-off with any flap setting desired. Steep slips should be avoided with flap settings greater than 20° due to a slight tendency for the elevator to oscillate under certain combinations of airspeed, sideslip angle, and center of gravity loadings. NOTE Carburetor heat should be applied prior to any signi- ficant reduction or closing of the throttle. NORMAL LANDING. Landings should be made on the main wheels first to reduce the land- ing speed and subsequent need for braking in the landing roll. The nose 2-16 wheel is lowered to the runway gently after the speed has diminished to avoid unnecessary nose gear loads. This procedure is especially im- portant in rough or soft field landings. SHORT FIELD LANDING. For short field landings, make a power-off approach at approximately 69 MPH indicated airspeed with 40° of flaps. Touchdown should be made on the main wheels first. Immediately after touchdown, lower the nose gear to the ground and apply heavy braking as required. For maximum brake effectiveness after all three wheels are on the ground, retract the flaps, hold full nose up elevator and apply maximum possible brake pressure without sliding the tires. CROSSWIND LANDING. When landing in a strong crosswind, use the minimum flap setting re- quired for the field length. If flap settings greater than 20° are used in side- slips with full rudder deflection, some elevator oscillation may be felt at normal approach speeds. However, this does not affect control of the air- craft. Although the crab or combination method of drift correction may be used, the wing-low method gives the best control. After touchdown, hold a straight course with the steerable nose wheel and occasional braking if necessary. The maximum allowable crosswind velocity is dependent upon pilot capability rather than airplane limitations. With average pilot technique, direct crosswinds of 15 knots can be handled with safety. BALKED LANDING (GO-AROUND). In a balked landing (go-around) climb, reduce the wing flap setting to 20° immediately after full power is applied. If the flaps were extended to 40°, the reduction to 20° may be approximated by placing the flap switch in the UP position for two seconds and then returning the switch to neutral. If obstacles must be cleared during the go-around climb, leave the wing flaps in the 10° to 20° range until the obstacles are cleared. After clearing any obstacles the flaps may be retracted as the aircraft ac- celerates to the normal flaps-up climb speed of 80 to 90 MPH. 2-17 COLD WEATHER OPERATION. STARTING. Prior to starting on a cold morning, it is advisable to pull the pro- peller through several times by hand to "breakloose" or "limber"the oil, thus conserving battery energy. NOTE When pulling the propeller through by hand, treat it as if the ignition switch is turned on. A loose or broken ground wire on either magneto could cause the engine to fire. In extremely cold (0°F and lower) weather, the use of an external pre- heater and an external power source are recommended whenever possible to obtain positive starting and to reduce wear and abuse to the engine and electrical system. Pre-heat will thaw the oil trapped in the oil cooler, which probably will be congealed prior to starting in extremely cold tem- peratures. When using an external power source, the position of the master switch is important. Refer to Section VII under Ground Service Plug Receptacle for operating details. Cold weather starting procedures are as follows: With Preheat: (1) With ignition switch OFF and throttle closed, prime the engine four to eight strokes as the propeller is being turned over by hand. NOTE Use heavy strokes of primer for best atomization of fuel. After priming, push primer all the way in and turn to locked position to avoid possibility of engine drawing fuel through the primer. (2) Propeller Area -- Clear. (3) Master Switch -- ON. (4) Mixture -- Full rich. (5) Throttle -- Open 1/8". (6) Ignition Switch -- START. (7) Release ignition switch to BOTH when engine starts. 2-18 (8) Oil Pressure -- Check. Without Preheat: (1) Prime the engine six to ten strokes while the propeller is being turned by hand with throttle closed. Leave primer charged and ready for stroke. (2) Propeller Area -- Clear. (3) Master Switch -- ON (4) Mixture -- Full rich. (5) Ignition Switch -- START. (6) Pump throttle rapidly to full open twice. Return to 1/8" open position. (7) Release ignition switch to BOTH when engine starts. (8) Continue to prime engine until it is running smoothly, or alternately pump throttle rapidly over first 1/4 to total travel. (9) Oil Pressure -- Check. (10) Pull carburetor heat knob full on after engine has started. Leave on until engine is running smoothly. (11) Lock Primer. NOTE If the engine does not start during the first few attempts, or if engine firing diminishes in strength, it is probable that the spark plugs have been frosted over. Preheat must be used before another start is attempted. IMPORTANT Pumping the throttle may cause raw fuel to accumulate in the intake air duct, creating a fire hazard in the event of a backfire. If this occurs, maintain a cranking action to suck flames into the engine. An outside attendant with a fire extinguisher is advised for cold starts without pre- heat. During cold weather operations, no indication will be apparent on the oil temperature gage prior to take-off if outside air temperatures are very cold. After a suitable warm-up period (2 to 5 minutes at 1000 RPM), accelerate the engine several times to higher engine RPM. If the engine accelerates smoothly and the oil pressure remains normal and steady, the aircraft is ready for take-off. 2-19 FLIGHT OPERATIONS. Take-off is made normally with carburetor heat off. Avoid excessive leaning in cruise. Carburetor heat may be used to overcome any occasional engine roughness due to ice. When operating in sub-zero temperature, avoid using partial carbu- retor heat. Partial heat may increase the carburetor air temperature to the 32° to 70°F range, where icing is critical under certain atmospheric conditions. Refer to Section VII for cold weather equipment. HOT WEATHER OPERATION. Refer to the general warm temperature starting information under Starting Engine in this section. Avoid prolonged engine operation on the ground. 2-20 Jecties IH EMERGENCY PROCEDURES Emergencies caused by aircraft or engine malfunctions are extreme- ly rare if proper pre-flight inspections and maintenance are practiced. Enroute weather emergencies can be minimized or eliminated by careful flight planning and good judgement when unexpected weather is encounter- ed. However, should an emergency arise the basic guidelines described in this section should be considered and applied as necessary to correct the problem. ELECTRICALPOWER SUPPLY SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS. Malfunctions in the electrical power supply system can be detected by periodic monitoring of the ammeter and over-voltage warning light; however, the cause of these malfunctions is usually difficult to determine. A broken alternator drive belt or wiring is most likely the cause of alter- nator failures, although other factors could cause the problem. A dam- aged or improperly adjusted voltage regulator can also cause malfunctions. Problems of this nature constitute an electrical emergency and should be dealt with immediately. Electrical power malfunctions usually fall into two categories: excessive rate of charge and insufficient rate of charge. The paragraphs below describe the recommended remedy for each situa- tion. EXCESSIVE RATE OF CHARGE. After engine starting and heavy electrical usage at low engine speeds (suchas extended taxiing) the battery condition will be low enough to ac- cept above normal charging during the initial part of a flight. However, after thirty minutes of cruising flight, the ammeter should be indicating less than two needle widths of charging current. If the charging rate were to remain above this value on a long flight, the battery would over- heat and evaporate the electrolyte at an excessive rate. Electronic com- ponents in the electrical system could be adversely affected by higher than normal voltage if a faulty voltage regulator setting is causing the 3-1 overcharging. To preclude these possibilities, an over-voltage sensor will automatically shut down the alternator and the over-voltage warning light will illuminate if the charge voltage reaches approximately 16 volts. Assuming that the malfunction was only momentary, an attempt should be made to reactivate the alternator system. To do this, turn both sides of the master switch off and then on again. If the problem no longer exists, normal alternator charging will resume and the warning light will go off. If the light comes on again, a malfunction is confirmed. In this event, the flight should be terminated and/or the current drain on the battery minimized because the battery can supply the electrical system for only a limited period of time. If the emergency occurs at night, power must be conserved for later use of the landing light and flaps during landing. INSUFFICIENT RATE OF CHARGE. If the ammeter indicates a continuous discharge rate in flight, the alternator is not supplying power to the system and should be shut down i since the alternator field circuit may be placing an unnecessary load on I the system. All non-essential equipment should be turned OFF and the flight terminated as soon as practical. ROUGH ENGINE OPERATION OR LOSS OF POWER. CARBURETOR ICING. A gradual loss of RPM and eventual engine roughness may result from the formation of carburetor ice. To clear the ice, apply full throttle and pull the carburetor heat knob full out until the engine runs smoothly; then remove carburetor heat and readjust the throttle. If conditions re- quire the continued use of carburetor heat in cruise flight, use the mini- mum amount of heat necessary to prevent ice from forming and lean the mixture slightly for smoothest engine operation. SPARK PLUG FOULING. An engine roughness in flight may be caused by one or more spark plugs becoming fouled by carbon or lead deposits. This may be verified by turning the ignition switch momentarily from BOTH to either LEFT or RIGHT position. An obvious power loss in single ignition operation is evidence of spark plug or magneto trouble. Assuming that spark plugs are the more likely cause, lean the mixture to the normal lean setting for cruising flight. If the problem does not clear up in several minutes, de- 3-2 termine if a richer mixture setting will produce smoother operation. If not, proceed to the nearest airport for repairs using the BOTH position of the ignition switch unless extreme roughness dictates the use of a sin- gle ignition position. MAGNETO MALFUNCTION. A sudden engine roughness or misfiring is usually evidence of mag- neto problems. Switching from BOTH to either LEFT or RIGHT ignition switch position will identify which magneto is malfunctioning. Select dif- ferent power settings and enrichen the mixture to determine if continued operation on BOTH magnetos is practicable. If not, switch to the good magneto and proceed to the nearest airport for repairs. LOW OIL PRESSURE. If low oil pressure is accompanied by normal oil temperature, there is a possibility the oil pressure gage or relief valve is malfunctioning. A leak in the line to the gage is not necessarily cause for an immediate pre- cautionary landing because an orifice in this line will prevent a sudden loss of oil from the engine sump. However, a landing at the nearest air- port would be advisable to inspect the source of trouble. If a total loss of oil pressure is accompanied by a rise in oil tempera- ture, there is reason to suspect an engine failure is imminent. Reduce engine power immediately and select a suitable forced landing field. Leave the engine running at low power during the approach, using only the minimum power required to reach the desired touchdown spot. FORCED LANDINGS. PRECAUTIONARY LANDING WITH ENGINE POWER. Before attempting an "offairport" landing, one should drag the land- ing area at a safe but low altitude to inspect the terrain for obstructions and surface conditions, proceeding as follows: (1) Drag over selected field with flaps 20° and 70 MPH airspeed, noting the preferred area for touchdown for the next landing approach Then retract flaps after well clear of all obstacles. (2) On downwind leg, turn off all switches except the ignition and master switches. 3-3 (3) Approach with flaps 40° at 70 MPH. (4) Unlatch cabin doors prior to final approach. (5) Before touchdown, turn off ignition and master switches. (6) Land in a slightly tail-low attitude. EMERGENCY LANDING WITHOUT ENGINE POWER. If an engine stoppage occurs, establish a flaps up glide at 80 MPH. If time permits, attempt to restart the engine by checking for fuel quan- tity, proper fuel selector valve position, and mixture control setting. Also check that engine primer is full in and locked and ignition switch is properly positioned. If all attempts to restart the engine fail, and a forced landing is im- minent, select a suitable field and prepare for the landing as follows: (1) Pull mixture control to idle cut-off position. (2) Turn fuel selector valve handle to OFF. (3) Turn off all switches except master switch. (4) Airspeed -- 70 to 80 MPH (flaps up). (5) Extend wing flaps as necessary within gliding distance of field. (6) Airspeed -- 65 to 75 MPH (flaps down). (7) Turn off master switch. (8) Unlatch cabin doors prior to final approach. (9) Land in a slightly tail-low attitude. (10) Apply heavy braking while holding full up elevator. DITCHING. Prepare for ditching by securing or jettisoning heavy objects located in the baggage area, and collect folded coats or cushions for protection of occupant's face at touchdown. Transmit Mayday message on 121. 5 MHz., giving location and intentions. (1) Plan approach into wind if winds are high and seas are heavy. With heavy swells and light wind, land parallel to swells. (2) Approach with flaps 40° and sufficient power for a 300 ft./min. rate of descent at 70 MPH. (3) Unlatch the cabin doors. (4) Maintain a continuous descent until touchdown in level attitude. Avoid a landing flare because of difficulty in judging aircraft height over a water surface. (5) Place folded coat or cushion in front of face at time of touchdown. (6) Evacuate aircraft through cabin doors. If necessary, open win- 3-4 dow to flood cabin compartment for equalizing pressure so that door can be opened. (7) Inflate life vests and raft (if available) after evacuation of cabin. The aircraft can not be depended on for flotation for more than a few minutes. DISORIENTATION IN CLOUDS. When flying in marginal weather, the pilot should make sure that the Wing Leveler control knob (if installed) is ON. However, if the airplane is not equipped with this device or gyro horizon and directional gyro in- struments, the pilot will have to rely on the turn coordinator (or turn and bank indicator) if he inadvertently flies into clouds. The following instruc- tions assume that only one of the latter two instruments is available. EXECUTING A 180° TURN IN CLOUDS. Upon entering the clouds, an immediate plan should be made to turn back as follows: (1) Note the time of the minute hand and observe the position of the sweep second hand on the clock. (2) When the sweep second hand indicates the nearest half-minute, initiate a standard rate left turn, holding the turn coordinator sym- bolic airplane wing opposite the lower left index mark for 60 seconds. Then roll back to level flight by leveling the miniature airplane. (3) Check accuracy of the turn by observing the compass heading which should be the reciprocal of the original heading. (4) If necessary, adjust heading primarily with skidding motions rather than rolling motions so that the compass will read more ac- curately. (5) Maintain altitude and airspeed by cautious application of elevator control. Avoid overcontrolling by keeping the hands off the control wheel and steering only with rudder. EMERGENCY LET-DOWNS THROUGH CLOUDS. If possible, obtain radio clearance for an emergency descent through clouds. To guard against a spiral dive, choose an easterly or westerly heading to minimize compass card swings due to changing bank angles. In addition, keep hands off the control wheel and steer a straight course with rudder control by monitoring the turn coordinator. Occasionally 3-5 check the compass heading and make minor corrections to hold an approxi- mate course. Before descending into the clouds, set up a stabilized let- down condition as follows: (1) Apply full rich mixture. (2) Use full carburetor heat. (3) Reduce power to set up a 500 to 800 ft./min. rate of descent. (4) Adjust the elevator trim tab for a stabilized descent at 90 MPH. (5) Keep hands off the control wheel. (6) Monitor turn coordinator and make corrections by rudder alone. (7) Check trend of compass card movement and make cautious cor- rections with rudder to stop the turn. (8) Upon breaking out of clouds resume normal cruising flight. RECOVERY FROM A SPIRAL DIVE. If a spiral is encountered, proceed as follows: (1) Close the throttle. (2) Stop the turn by using coordinated aileron and rudder control to align the symbolic airplane in the turn coordinator with the horizon reference line. (3) Cautiously apply elevator back pressure to slowly reduce the in- dicated airspeed to 90 MPH. (4) Adjust the elevator trim control to maintain a 90 MPH glide. (5) Keep hands off the control wheel, using rudder control to hold a straight heading. (6) Apply carburetor heat. (7) Clear engine occasionally, but avoid using enough power to dis- turb the trimmed glide. (8) Upon breaking out of clouds, apply normal cruising power and resume flight. FIRES. ENGINE FIRE DURING START ON GROUND. Improper starting procedures such as pumping the throttle during a difficult cold weather start can cause a backfire which could ignite fuel that has accumulated in the intake duct. In this event, proceed as follows: (1) Continue cranking in an attempt to get a start which would suck 3-6