Piper Arrow Single-engine Guide

the maneuvering speed is everchanging based on weight. The same rule applies with maneuvering speed as it does with stall speed. When the aircraft’s weight is greater, you must fly at a higher angle of attack to maintain enough lift to support the aircraft. Therefore, when you are at a higher AOA with a higher stall speed, the speed at which the full-scale deflection can be safely done also increases. When you increase the angle of attack to create more lift, you are increasing the load factor. The load factor is measured in G’s (acceleration of gravity) and is the ratio of lift to the weight of the aircraft. For example, when an aircraft is experiencing 2 G’s, the load being placed on the aircraft is twice its weight. When you increase the load factor, maneuvering speed is increased 01302025.draft.npc / page 11 Section II: Speeds, Weights, and Performance Piper Arrow PA28R-201 Speeds Speed KIAS Description Airspeed Indicator Marking VSO 55 Stall speed in landing configuration Bottom of white arc V S 60 Stall speed with no flaps Bottom of green arc V R 60-71 Rotation speed V X 72 Best angle of climb with gear down, flaps up V X 78 Best angle of climb with gear up and flaps up V Y 78 Best angle of climb with gear down, flaps up V Y 90 Best rate of climb, gear up, flaps up V G 79 Best glide speed at max weight V FE 103 Maximum flap extension speed Top of white arc V LO 107 Maximum Landing Gear Retraction Speed V LE 129 Maximum Landing Gear Extension Speed V NO 146 Max structural cruising speed Top of green arc V NE 183 Never exceed speed Red line V A 118 Maneuvering speed at 2,750 lbs. V A 96 Maneuvering speed at 1,865 lbs. The maximum demonstrated crosswind is 17 knots 01302025.draft.npc / page 12 Piper Arrow PA28R-201 Weight and Balance Maximum Ramp Weight (lbs.) 2,758 Maximum Takeoff Weight (lbs.) 2,750 Maximum Landing Weight (lbs.) 2,750 Maximum Weight in Baggage compartments (lbs.) 200 01302025.draft.npc / page 13 Takeoff and Landing Distances Normal Takeoff Distance Example: Temperature – 20 degrees Pressure altitude – 2,500 ft. T/O weight – 2,600 lbs. Wind component – 10 kts Headwind 01302025.draft.npc / page 14 Flaps 25 degrees Takeoff Distance Example: Temperature – 20 degrees Pressure altitude – 2,500 ft. T/O weight – 2,500 lbs. Wind component – 5 kts Headwind Landing Distance 01302025.draft.npc / page 15 Example: Temperature – 20 degrees Pressure Altitude – 1,000 ft. LDG weight – 2,300 lbs. Wind component – 3 kts Headwind 01302025.draft.npc / page 16 Time, Fuel, and distance calculations Example: Departure airport: Temperature – 10 degrees Pressure altitude – 6,000 ft Time – 10 minutes Fuel – 4 gallons Distance – 18 nm Cruise altitude: Temperature – 15 degrees Pressure altitude – 4,000 ft Time – 8 minutes Fuel – 3 gallons Distance – 10 nm Answer Time: 10 min – 8 min = 2 min Fuel: 4 gal – 3 gal = 1 gal Distance: 18 nm -10 nm = 8 nm 01302025.draft.npc / page 17 Cruise Calculations Based on desired fuel burn and percent power, we can use the following charts to find the recommended RPM for that specific condition. Example: Power – 55% Fuel burn – 8.2 GPH Pressure altitude – 2,000 ft Temperature – ISA + 20 Desired RPM – 2305 01302025.draft.npc / page 18 Example: Power – 65% Fuel burn – 9.5 GPH Pressure altitude – 4,000 ft Temperature – ISA Desired RPM – 2450 01302025.draft.npc / page 19 Example: Power – 75% Fuel burn – 11 GPH Pressure altitude – 3,000 ft Temperature – ISA + 10 Desired RPM – 2580 01302025.draft.npc / page 20 Section III: Systems Airframe o Low-wing monoplane of all metal construction o Four seats, with a maximum baggage weight of 200 pounds o The majority of the aircraft is constructed with aluminum alloy except the following components: o Engine mount. (tubular steel) o Other misc. parts o Semi-tapered wings o Tapered wings decrease the length of the chord from the root to the wing tip. This causes a decrease in drag, and an increase in lift. Flight Controls Primary Flight Controls - Ailerons - Controls roll about the longitudinal axis. They are located at the outboard trailing edge of the wing. - Connected by cables, bell cranks, pulleys, and/or push-pull tubes - Moving the yoke to the right causes the right aileron to deflect up and the left aileron to deflect downward. Moving the yoke to the left causes the left aileron to deflect upward and the right aileron to deflect downward. - Differential ailerons 1. One aileron is raised significantly more, and the other aileron is lowered, which produces an increase in drag on the descending wing. The aileron deflected up is going a further distance than the aileron deflected down, which creates more drag and counteracts adverse yaw. - Stabilator - A one-piece horizontal stabilizer that moves around a central hinge point. - Stabilators are very sensitive to control inputs, so antiservo tabs are often placed on the trailing edge of the surface. These tabs deflect in the same direction as the stabilator, making it to where the pilot must increase force on the controls. This aids with overcontrolling the airplane. - Connected by cables, bell cranks, pulleys, and pushrods - Rudder - Controlled by the left and right rudder pedals - Connected by cables, pulleys, and push/pull tubes. - Rudder effectiveness increases with speed. Deflecting the rudder to either direction, alters the airflow and creates a side component of lift. This lift will push the tail in one direction and yaw the nose in the opposite direction. Secondary Flight Controls 01302025.draft.npc / page 21 - Flaps - Manually operated and spring loaded - Three extended positions: 10 degrees, 25 degrees, and 40 degrees - Slotted flaps 1. Increases lift coefficient without excessive drag 2. When the flap is lowered, a duct forms between the flap and the wing allowing airflow and delaying airflow separation. Power Plant and Propeller - Power plant  Lycoming IO-360-C1C6  200 horsepower, 360 cubic inches of displacement, 2700 RPM  Horizontally opposed  Pistons face away from each other  4 cylinders, 2 spark plugs a piece for increased reliability (8 total)  Air-cooled  Not liquid-cooled  Cooling fins aid in heat dissipation allowing the engine to cool faster  Naturally aspirated  Takes in air under normal atmospheric pressure  Not supercharged or turbocharged  Direct drive  Propeller is directly connected to crankshaft, so it turns at the same speed as the crankshaft.  Fuel injected vs. carbureted  Fuel injected engines are more fuel efficient due to the air-to-fuel mixture being more precise. In these engines, the fuel and air mixture is mixed directly in the cylinder.  Although fuel injected engines have many pros, they are harder to maintain and more expensive. They are also susceptible to vapor lock. This is when the fuel in the lines evaporates and turns to a gas. - Propeller 01302025.draft.npc / page 22 • Equipped with a 2 blade, 74-inch, constant speed, hydraulically actuated McCauley Propeller. • The propeller is constant speed, meaning the propeller governor can change the blade angle during flight to maintain a constant RPM that is set by the pilot. • Constant Speed Propeller • Propeller provides constant RPM regardless of power setting • Propeller RPM is adjusted by the propeller control lever • Components of Constant Speed Propeller - Propeller control lever in cockpit is used to set propeller RPM - Governor control lever applies pressure to speeder spring based on propeller setting - Speeder spring is connected to pilot valve - Pilot valve has openings which align with different lines depending on whether oil must go into or out of the hub - Flyweights are spinning within the governor at an RPM paired with the propeller - Movement of flyweights moves speeder spring and pilot valve which allows oil to move into or out of propeller hub - Propeller piston is attached to a spring which pushes it forward in the propeller hub cylinder when there is no oil pressure in the hub - When oil pressure enters the hub, propeller piston is moved and the propeller blade angle is adjusted 01302025.draft.npc / page 23 - Moving Propeller Control Forward (low pitch/high RPM) 1. Allows smaller bites of air, allowing the propeller to push air faster (higher RPM) allowing more torque 2. Used for Takeoff and Landing • It is like climbing a hill on a bicycle with a low gear (low pitch) with faster pedal movement (high RPM) to allow a more efficient climb. - Operations 1. Pilot moves propeller control forward in cockpit which moves cables connected to the governor control lever. 2. Governor control lever applies downward force to the speeder spring and flyweights and moves the pilot valve 3. Movement of pilot valve allows oil to flow out of propeller hub into the oil sump 4. As oil leaves the propeller hub, a spring pushes propeller piston forward 5. Propeller piston is connected to propeller with metal linkages and moves blade angle to a fine or low angle of attack pitch 6. As propeller RPM increases, the flyweights will begin to return to a neutral position as the speed of the propeller and flyweights begin to sync. 7. As flyweights move into the neutral position, pressure is applied to the speeder spring and the pilot valve is raised to prevent oil from leaving the hub 8. The propeller is now in an on-speed condition Source: McCauley 01302025.draft.npc / page 24 - Moving Propeller Control Backward (high pitch/low RPM) - Allows bigger bites of air, allowing the airplane to accelerate to a higher speed more efficiently - Used for Cruise 1. It is like riding a bicycle with a higher gear (high pitch) with lower pedal movement (low RPM) when you are on a flat surface, trying to gain more speed - Operations 1. The pilot moves propeller control aft in cockpit, which moves cables connected to the governor control lever. 2. The governor control lever applies an upward force to the speeder spring, flyweights, and moves the pilot valve 3. Movement of the pilot valve allows openings to line up with a line from the engine-driven gear pump which provides oil pressure 4. Oil is pumped into the propeller hub and moves the propeller hub aft. 5. Propeller piston is connected to propeller with metal linkages and moves blade angle to a coarse or a high angle of attack pitch 6. As propeller RPM decreases, the flyweights will begin to move to a neutral position as the speed of the propeller and the flyweights begin to sync 7. As flyweights move into a neutral position, pressure is applied to the speeder spring and the pilot valve is lowered to prevent oil from leaving the hub 8. The propeller is now in an on-speed condition Source: McCauley 01302025.draft.npc / page 25 - Propeller in Underspeed Condition 1. Propeller RPM is too low for the given condition • Ex. Reducing the throttle without adjusting the prop lever • Ex. Initiating a climb without adjusting throttle lever • Ex. Initial 45 degrees of lazy eight maneuver with increase in pitch - Operations 1. Decrease in propeller RPM results in a decrease in RPM of the flyweights 2. Centrifugal force acts on flyweights and causes them to fall inwards and lower speeder spring 3. Movement of pilot valve allows oil to flow out of propeller hub into the oil sump 4. As oil leaves the propeller hub, a spring pushes propeller piston forward 5. Propeller piston is connected to the propeller with metal linkages and moves blade angle to a fine or low angle of attack pitch 6. As propeller RPM increases, the flyweights will begin to return to a neutral position as the speed of the propeller and flyweights begin to sync. 7. As flyweights move into the neutral position, pressure is applied to the speeder spring and the pilot valve is raised to prevent oil from leaving the propeller hub 8. The propeller is now in an on-speed condition 01302025.draft.npc / page 26 - Propeller in Overspeed Condition 1. Propeller RPM is too fast for the given condition • Ex. Increasing the throttle without adjusting the prop lever • Ex. Initiating a descent without adjusting throttle lever • Ex. 90-135 degrees of lazy eight maneuver with decrease in pitch - Operations 1. Increase in propeller RPM results in an increase in RPM of flyweights 2. Centrifugal force acts on flyweights and causes them to fall outwards and lift speeder spring 3. Upward force from the speeder spring moves the pilot valve 4. Movement of the pilot valve allows openings to line up with a line from the engine-driven gear pump which provides oil pressure 5. Oil is pumped into the propeller hub and moves the propeller hub aft. 6. Propeller piston is connected to the propeller with metal linkages and moves blade angle to a coarse or a high angle of attack pitch 7. As propeller RPM decreases, the flyweights will begin to move to a neutral position as the speed of the propeller and the flyweights begin to sync 8. As flyweights move into a neutral position, pressure is applied to the speeder spring and the pilot valve is lowered to prevent oil from leaving the propeller hub 9. The propeller is now in an on-speed condition 01302025.draft.npc / page 27 Landing Gear System - Landing Gear - Equipped with retractable tricycle landing gear - Hydraulically actuated by an electrically powered reversible pump - Landing gear retraction and extension takes approximately seven seconds - When the gear is fully extended and in the down and locked position, three green lights will illuminate in the cockpit when contact is made with the down-lock switches on each gear - The brightness of the gear indication lights is affected by the navigation lights; if the navigation lights are on, the gear indication lights will be dimmed. - When the landing gear is in transition or has not fully extended or retracted, a red gear unsafe light will illuminate. - The red gear unsafe light and a gear warning horn will annunciate if: 1. Gear is retracted and power is reduced below approximately 14 inches of manifold pressure 2. Gear selector switch is up while on the ground and the throttle is idle 3. Whenever flaps are extended beyond 10 degrees and the landing gear is not down and locked - The gear warning horn emits a beeping sound in contrast to the stall warning horn which is continuous - When the landing gear is retracted and contact is made with the up-limit switch, the red gear unsafe will be extinguished - To prevent retraction of the gear when on the ground, a weight-on-wheels switch or “squat switch” is active as long as there is sufficient weight on the landing gear - The nose wheel is equipped with a hydraulic shimmy damper to reduce nose wheel shimmy - During normal operation, the emergency landing gear extension lever must be in the up position - During emergency operations, the emergency gear extension lever must be in the down position. - Lowering the emergency gear extension lever results in the release hydraulic pressure and permits the main gear to free fall, while the nose gear extension is spring assisted. 01302025.draft.npc / page 28 Landing Gear Extension - Extending Landing Gear - To extend the landing gear, the gear selector is placed in the down position - This action results in the hydraulic pump pumping hydraulic fluid out of the gear actuator pistons and back to the reservoir - When the gear is full extended and contact is made with the down-lock switch, the three green lights will illuminate in the cockpit and the gear unsafe light will be extinguished - If the hydraulic pressure in the low-pressure lines decreases below 600 PSI, the low-pressure relief valve will open to allow fluid to return to the hydraulic reservoir - The extension process is aided by gravity. - In the event of an emergency, the emergency gear extension lever can be operated to permit the high-pressure fluid in the cylinders to flow back to the reservoir and permit the landing gear to free fall 01302025.draft.npc / page 29 Landing Gear Retraction - Retracting the Landing Gear - To retract the landing gear, the gear selector is placed in the up position - This action results in the hydraulic pump pumping hydraulic fluid into the gear actuator pistons - When the fluid pressure in the cylinders reaches 1800 psi, the pressure switch deactivates the hydraulic pump and the high pressure remaining in the cylinders is what keeps the gear in the retracted position - When the gear is retracted and contact is made with the up limit switch, the gear unsafe light is extinguished, and the warning horn will shut off if active. - If the pressure in the cylinder falls below 1500 PSI, the pressure switch will activate the hydraulic pump to pump more fluid into the cylinder - If the pressure in the hydraulic lines exceeds, 2400 PSI, the high-pressure relief valve will open to release hydraulic fluid back to the reservoir and relieve pressure. - If the pressure in the hydraulic lines exceeds 3000 PSI due to thermal expansion, the thermal relief valve will open to release hydraulic fluid back to the reservoir and relieve pressure. 01302025.draft.npc / page 30 Oil and Fuel Fuel System - 2 tanks, one in the left wing and one in the right wing - 38.5 gallons a piece (77), however 2.5 gallons per side is unusable. Therefore, we have 72 usable gallons. - A fuel injected engine has a slightly different flow than carbureted. Fuel flows from the tanks to the fuel selector, through the strainer, then the electric fuel pump. It then goes through the engine driven pump, to the regulator, then the distributor that injects the fuel into all cylinders. Oil - The range for the oil on the PA28R-201 is 6-8 quarts. Ensure the oil level is always above 6 quarts before departing. Pitot Static and Stall Warning device 01302025.draft.npc / page 31 - The ram air pitot is located on the front side of the pitot mast. The drain hole is on the bottom, and the static port is located on the backside of the mast. - Alternate static is located in the cockpit, under the panel that the PFD is on. - The stall warning alert is activated five to ten knots above stall speed. Aside from the stall warning, you may encounter a buffet of the airplane. To test the stall warning alert, turn on the battery master and lift the detector on the wing. Anti-Ice and De-Ice 01302025.draft.npc / page 32 - Pitot heat - Heat is directed into the pitot tube and is able to melt any ice forming inside of the instrument. - Defrost - Air goes over the exhaust shroud and is heated. Then it travels through a heater muff into the cockpit over the dash and under the center floor panel. The heat on the windshield prevents ice from forming. - Carburetor Heat - Directs heat to the carburetor and melts any ice that may be present due to the high velocity of the fuel/air mixture through the venturi. Environmental - Fresh air inlets can be found in the onboard portion of the leading edge near the wing and near the aft portion of the fuselage. The vents in the ceiling and the floor of the aircraft are adjustable to each seat location. There is also a cabin air blower that is in the cockpit and is operated by a fan. - Cabin heat can be regulated by controls on the right side of the cockpit. This heat is provided by the same heater muff attached to the exhaust. Electrical System and Avionics 01302025.draft.npc / page 33 PA28R-201 Electrical System 01302025.draft.npc / page 34 G5 Contains internal backup batteries that can power the device up to 4 hours if aircraft electrical power is lost. It uses an external magnetometer under the right wing. Aspen Additional 30 minutes of power. It uses the internal magnetometer. PA28R-201 Avionics In the Piper Arrow, we have a G500 NXI, which provides us with all our pitot static and gyroscopic instruments, as well as our engine instruments. We also have a GTN 650 and a GTN 750, which provide us with our radio, GPS, and VHF navigation. G500 NXI 01302025.draft.npc / page 35 G750 & G650 01302025.draft.npc / page 36 Sources A new look at Maneuvering Speed. AOPA. (2020, May 4). https://www.aopa.org/news-and- media/all-news/2020/may/flight-training-magazine/ol-maneuvering-speed Why does maneuvering speed change with weight?. Online Flight Training Courses and CFI Tools. (n.d.). https://www.boldmethod.com/learn-to-fly/aerodynamics/why-does-maneuvering- speed-change-with-aircraft-weight-stall/ Left-turning tendencies explained: Why your plane pulls left during takeoff. Online Flight Training Courses and CFI Tools. (n.d.-a). https://www.boldmethod.com/learn-to- fly/aerodynamics/why-you-need-right-rudder-on-takeoff-to-stay-on-centerline-during-takeoff/ The Federal Aviation Administration. (n.d.). Chapter 5 - Aerodynamics of Flight. https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/07_phak_ch5_0.pdf The Federal Aviation Administration . (n.d.-b). Chapter 6: Flight Controls. https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/08_phak_ch6.pdf