FAA Safety Briefing — January/February 2020

D E PA R T M E N T S 2 Jumpseat: an executive policy perspective The FAA safety policy voice of non-commercial general aviation 3 ATIS: GA news and current events 5 Aeromedical Advisory: a checkup on all things aeromedical 6 Condition Inspection: a look at specific medical conditions 27 Checklist: FAA resources and safety reminders 31 Drone Debrief: drone safety roundup 32 Nuts, Bolts, and Electrons: GA maintenance issues 33 Angle of Attack: GA safety strategies No Surprises! Keeping Control of Avionics and Automation 34 Vertically Speaking: safety issues for rotorcraft pilots 35 Flight Forum: letters from the Safety Briefing mailbag 36 Postflight: an editor’s perspective Inside back cover FAA Faces: FAA employee profile The Beating Heart How Your The Arthropod’s Revenge How Engine Works and How to “Treat” It an Airplane’s Fuselage Has More

11 14

in Common with Bugs than Birds L’Empennage A Guided Tour of Your Plane’s Tail Feathers The Wing’s the Thing How Wing Design Affects Your Ride, and How to Preflight for Safety Give Me a Brake ... And Maybe a Tire and Strut Too Understanding Your Undercarriage On The Money Getting to Know Your Airplane as an Energy System January / February 2020 1

JUMPSEAT RICK DOMINGO, FLIGHT STANDARDS SERVICE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

A DANGEROUS THING

“glass” in place of the once ubiqui - Seventeenth century English poet Alexander Pope is usually credited tous “six-pack” makes some aspects of flying easier — but only if you first with the famous remark that “a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.” invest the time it takes to truly master the system(s) you have. We go on to a Obviously, Mr. Pope lived long before the age of aviation. Nevertheless, his look at powerplants, with discussion of both legacy and developing engine observation is applicable to aviation both in its general interpretation and types. On the subject of airframes, there’s still a lot of metal out there but its literal form.

Here’s what I mean. the team also takes a look at com - posites, and things you should know How (Not) to Describe an Elephant about each. You will also find concise One way to paraphrase the first and reviews of handling/inspection tips more common interpretation is for the hardworking tailfeathers, the to say that we don’t know what we all-important wings, and the some - don’t know. All too often, though, we times-overlooked elements of your humans have a tendency to inflate landing gear.

the importance and scope of even the With winter now upon us, flying tiniest scrap of information. That idea days might be less frequent. But we WHEN IT COMES TO DOING best comes to life in the famous story hope you will be inspired to use this ANY JOB IN AVIATION, THE of the six blind men and the elephant: non-flying season to dig in and deepen each describes the animal based on the your knowledge of these topics.

DANGER OF INSUFFICIENT one part they happened to touch. The KNOWLEDGE IS OBVIOUS.

Energy Management crew resource management discussion in the previous issue of this magazine In the spirit of tying it all together — an aircraft is always more than the translates the concept into aviation terms, emphasizing the importance sum of its individual parts — we are Clearly, of course, it would take a pleased to offer the first of perhaps to combining information from all lot more than a single magazine issue available sources to get an accurate several articles on the vital topic of to do justice to any given part of any energy management. If you have understanding of the situation.

given aircraft make and model. Our looked at the Airman Certification purpose is to cover some of the basics, More is Better Standards (ACS) recently, you will which could be new to those just A second way to interpret Pope’s note several references to this concept getting started or a useful reminder remark is the more literal one — that as one of the elements a pilot should to those who have been in aviation is to say that not knowing enough be able to know, consider, and do to for a while. For everyone, though, the about something can be dangerous. I qualify for a certificate or rating. With team hopes that the material pre - think you will quickly agree that when contributions from the aviation train - sented here will whet your appetite for it comes to doing any job in aviation ing community, we are already in the more knowledge about the design, the — pilot, mechanic, controller, dis - process of developing more guidance construction, and the performance of patcher, or any other you can name — material on this topic for inclusion in your particular make and model.

the danger of insufficient knowledge a future issue of our H-series hand - Here’s a preview.

is obvious. So, in this “know-your- books. One of those contributors has We’ll start with a look at the impor - aircraft” themed issue of FAA Safety generously offered to start sharing tance of knowing all you can master Briefing , the team will take a closer those concepts though this publica - about avionics and automation. As look at each of the major parts of our tion, so don’t miss it.

the article observes, the advent of marvelous flying machines.

2 FAA Safety Briefing

ATIS GA NEWS AND CURRENT EVENTS

AVIATION NEWS ROUNDUP

Cold Temperature Restricted request an authorization to deviate fication that allows pilots who meet Airports Update from the rule to access ADS-B Out certain conditions to operate an required airspace. aircraft without a “traditional” FAA Last October, the FAA issued Infor - The FAA has developed an medical certificate. As of November mation for Operators (InFO) 19012 ADS-B Deviation Authorization 2019, more than 51,000 airmen have (go.usa.gov/xpb2q) that provides Preflight Tool (ADAPT) to manage met the qualifications and are operat - an update to the Cold Temperature these non-routine authorization ing under BasicMed. This number is Restricted Airports list. This year’s requests. ADAPT requests should expected to grow, both in the United update contains several additions and be made via the web tool no more States and elsewhere, as certain Inter - deletions to the list. The list was devel - than 24 hours before your flight and national Civil Aviation Organization oped in response to recognized safety no less than one hour before the (ICAO) member countries consider concerns over cold weather altimetry flight. Authorizations are processed enacting similar programs.

errors at certain airports. It is available on a first-come, first-served basis BasicMed is consistent with the in the Notice to Airman Publication at and are prioritized with other duties. FAA’s strategic initiative for risk- go.usa.gov/xpb2A.

Pilots are responsible for receiv - based decision-making because it is ADAPTing to ADS-B ing an authorization from ADAPT limited to certain types of lower-risk before departure. operations. It incorporates mitiga - The ADS-B Out equipage deadline Please note: the FAA will not issue tions and safeguards that include has passed, but it’s not too late to in-flight authorizations to operators of limitations on the size of the aircraft equip. The FAA encourages owners to non-equipped aircraft, nor will ATC and the number of passengers, as equip as soon as possible to enjoy the facilities accept requests for authoriza - well as requirements for regular benefits of ADS-B and ensure access tions by telephone. medical examinations and recurring to all available airspace.

For more information on ADAPT, aeromedical education.

If your aircraft does not meet please visit www.faa.gov/go/equipadsb . BasicMed enables airmen to speak ADS-B Out equipage or performance frankly with their physicians to find requirements, either because you have Basic Facts About BasicMed and address health issues before these not yet equipped or your equipment Established at the direction of Con - factors contribute to an accident or is not working properly, you may gress, BasicMed is a medical quali - incident. Accordingly, the program is January / February 2020 3 ATIS also consistent with the core tenets of Service created TWEB when there was Service is in the process of decom - the FAA’s Compliance Program. a large demand for briefings to alleviate missioning duplicate or redundant The FAA is focused on continuous the workload of specialists and reduce Remote Communication Outlet improvement through the use of data, wait times for pilots. A similar broad - (RCO) frequencies, while maintain - which is why Congress requires a cast service, known as Hazardous ing at least 90-percent of the current report on this program in 2022. The Inflight Weather Advisory Service coverage 1,000 feet above ground FAA is actively monitoring the regu - (HIWAS) is being discontinued in the level. The FAA published a final lation and will use this data to inform contiguous United States (CONUS). policy notice (go.usa.gov/xpjbq) to Congress of any issues, to include TIBS was a continuous telephone begin reducing the network of RCOs ways to improve this program and to recording of meteorological informa - in August 2017.

inform future decisions and actions. tion that pilots could access without Effective February 20, 2020 at Those interested in flying under going through a Flight Service special - 0001z, the FAA will issue Notices to BasicMed can visit FAA.gov/go/Basic - ist. Since the early 1980s, the broadcast Airmen (NOTAMs) for the final list Med to learn more about the process. allowed pilots to access weather infor - of RCOs and VOR voice frequen - mation along the route of flight but did cies slated for removal, which will TWEB and TIBS in Alaska Sunset not satisfy the requirement to become no longer be monitored. The FAA As part of FAA efforts to modern - familiar with all available information will realize estimated cost savings ize and streamline service delivery, prior to a flight. TIBS was discontinued of about $2.5M annually in main - Flight Service discontinued the Tran - in the CONUS in September 2018. tenance costs alone, as well as a scribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) With the advent of the internet reduction in infrastructure costs of and Telephone Information Briefing and other technology, the demand for about $40K per month. The comple - Service (TIBS) in Alaska on Jan. 1, information from Flight Service spe - tion of radio frequency reduction 2020. This will allow the agency to cialists has declined. There are multiple aligns RCO infrastructure with the reallocate resources in ways that other sources available for weather and decrease in pilot demand for inflight enhance services to users. aeronautical information, which are services and excludes frequencies The TWEB was a continuous broad - often presented in an easier to under - designated for emergency or military cast of aeronautical and meteorological stand graphical format. use and those in Alaska. Please visit information over a limited network of faa.gov/go/flightservice to see an Radio Frequency Reduction Update Very High Frequency Omni-Direc - updated list of frequencies.

tional Range (VORs) and Non-Direc - As part of efforts to modernize and tional Beacons across Alaska. Flight streamline service delivery, Flight SAFETY ENHANCEMENT TOPICS Please visit bit.ly/GAFactSheets for more information on these and other topics.

JANUARY FEBRUARY Mountain Flying Interruptions and Understanding the need for Distractions Learn how to successfully training and currency when flying in mountainous areas.

cope with interruptions and distractions while flying.

4 FAA Safety Briefing

AEROMEDICAL ADVISORY MICHAEL BERRY, M.D., FEDERAL AIR SURGEON

A LIST AT LONG LAST

cause you to lose consciousness with Probably the most consistent question I get when talking to airmen is, “Why little or no warning? When you have a choice, this guide can help you pick an isn’t there a list of approved medica - tions from the FAA?” The answer was option that should be safe to use.

For example, let’s take a look at always that the request was actually far more difficult than most people some common cough/cold medica - tions. Most medications not labeled understood. Having an approved list means having one not only for you, “PM” are usually safe for flight, but there are some exceptions. It’s import - but also for every other pilot across all classes of medical certification as ant to look at all the active ingredi - ents. Anything that contains dextro - well as alternative qualifications. But that has changed. methorphan (that includes Dayquil®) is not allowed. Another common The Challenges ailment is gastrointestinal illness.

the dangers of certain medication use Several major issues have always Medications containing bismuth sub - while flying. Working with the GAJSC, made this holy grail of aerospace salicylate like Pepto-Bismol® or Kao - the Office of Aerospace Medicine has medicine a herculean task. First, pectate® are fine, but those containing produced a document to help guide every medication can have different Loperamide, like Imodium®, are not.

pilots in making that fitness decision.

effects on different people. Any list of It’s a good idea to test out a medica - The guide opens with a preamble approved medications would have to tion prior to using it while flying in that discusses factors you should cover any potential impairment for case you have an adverse reaction.

know and consider when using it.

any airman. In many cases, medi - It would be easy to view all of those First, evaluate your condition, then cations that seem innocuous (e.g., medications as roughly equivalent, examine the medication for obvious Diphenhydramine/Benadryl®) can but from an aerospace medicine point warnings such as “Do not operate have dangerous side effects. Next is of view, they are not. This is why this machinery.” Next you need to be the fact that no two illnesses/diseases guide has such great potential to help able to determine what exactly you are identical. That leads to point airmen treat illness while staying safe.

are taking. The document provides a three: the underlying condition for The guide is a reference, but ultimately, guide to over the counter (OTC) drug which you are taking the medica - you are still the final authority.

labels that should help because you tion could be disqualifying. These can often find the same active ingre - issues only scratch the surface of our Dr. Michael Berry received an M.D. from the Uni - dient in many different brand names versity of Texas Southwestern Medical School, and required considerations.

a master’s in preventive medicine from Ohio State and sometimes for treating different But we understand that there is a University. He is certified by the American Board symptoms. Prescription drugs won’t challenge for airmen as well. Ulti - of Preventive Medicine in aerospace medicine. He feature the standardized label, but do mately, an airman is responsible for served as an FAA senior aviation medical examiner indicate what they are and usually a determining whether they are fit for and vice-president of Preventive and Aerospace common trade name.

Medicine Consultants for 25 years before joining flight under Title 14 Code of Federal the FAA. He also served as both a U.S. Air Force and Regulations (14 CFR) section 61.53.

Multiple Choice NASA flight surgeon.

We understand that such a list is a When evaluating a possible medica - valuable resource in making that tion, keep in mind the two primary determination. LEARN MORE concerns for aeromedical fitness are The Long Awaited Prize subtle and sudden incapacitation.

What OTC Medications Can I Take and Will this medication degrade your The General Aviation Joint Steering Still Be Safe To Fly?

performance in a way that you will be Committee (GAJSC) requested a list www.faa.gov/go/pilotmeds unable to detect? Will this medication as part of an effort to educate pilots on January / February 2020 5

CONDITION INSPECTION LEO M. HATTRUP, M.D.

MAY I HAVE YOUR ATTENTION, PLEASE!

Certification with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder out diagnosis of ADHD/ADD. These medications include amphetamine, (ADHD, also known as attention deficit ADHD IS AN AEROMED - disorder (ADD)) is a chronic disorder. methamphetamine, and methylpheni - date (not a true stimulant). The FAA no Commonly diagnosed in childhood, it ICAL CONCERN DUE TO can persist into adulthood. longer requires a full neuropsychologi - IMPAIRMENTS OF ATTEN - cal testing battery unless the screening ADHD is also diagnosed in adult - hood. An estimated two to four-percent battery is abnormal.

TION, HYPERACTIVITY AND To be considered for a medical of adults in the United States have IMPULSIVITY, LEADING ADHD. It is an aeromedical concern certificate, the applicant must be off all medications used to treat ADHD due to impairments of attention, hyper - TO JUDGMENT AND DECI - activity and impulsivity, leading to for a minimum of 90 days. Medical SION-MAKING PROBLEMS.

records are reviewed and, if possible, judgment and decision-making prob - lems. Accordingly, the FAA requires a observations made by those who know the individual in a variety of environ - detailed evaluation of an applicant for sure to cigarette smoke, alcohol and medical certification. Naturally, this ments. School transcripts (on and off other drugs, and environmental toxins medications, if ever taken), perfor - generates many questions.

such as lead. Brain injuries are also ADHD manifests itself differently mance reports, etc., are also reviewed.

implicated. The diagnosis of ADHD The applicant must complete a series in adults than children. In an adult, requires a comprehensive evaluation inattention, restlessness, and impulsiv - of neurocognitive tests, some of which by a licensed clinician who gathers have been normed for the pilot pop - ity are more prominent while hyperac - information from those who know the tivity recedes. Inattention issues include ulation. These help assess the appli - individual, including family members, problems with organization, prioriti - cant’s cognitive ability off medications.

co-workers, and teachers. For an ado - zation, task completion, forgetfulness, Fortunately, we are able to qualify many lescent or adult to receive a diagnosis and missed deadlines. Maintenance of applicants for medical certification. In of ADHD, the symptoms need to have attention for long periods (e.g., cruise fact, in many cases, the evaluator deter - been present before age 12. Unfortu - phase of a routine flight) can be difficult mines that the individual actually never nately, over-diagnosis is not unusual.

for someone with ADHD. Executive had ADHD/ADD.

While there is no cure for ADHD, function is also impaired, manifesting As always, our goal is to certify available treatments can reduce symp - through problems in working memory as many applicants as we can when toms and improve function. Treatments (the ability to hold information long safety permits.

include medication, psychotherapy, enough to solve a problem), task man - education or training, or a combination agement, and multi-tasking. Over-reac - Leo M. Hattrup, M.D., received bachelors’ degree of these. Medications used for ADHD from Wichita State University, a master’s in public tion to frustration is frequently present.

can have side effects that are not health from Harvard University, and a doctorate Clearly, these deficits can be hazardous from Vanderbilt University. He is retired from the compatible with flight safety; therefore, in the aviation environment.

U.S. Air Force in which he spent the majority of his the FAA cannot authorize their use.

Individuals with ADHD are also at career in aerospace medicine. He is board certified The FAA will consider other treatment risk for other mental health diagno - in aerospace and occupational medicine. He is modalities on a case-by-case basis.

a certificated flight instructor and enjoys flying ses, substance abuse, and relationship The FAA has recently simplified its airplanes, helicopters, and gliders.

problems. Traffic violations are more protocols for evaluation of the diagno - common, raising concerns for risky sis of ADHD, either current or histor - behavior. A recent review of NTSB LEARN MORE ical. Airmen with a history of ADHD/ data linked nine fatal mishaps to ADD get a screening battery. Also, ADHD or ADD.

Airmen can find information describing individuals who have taken stimulant The cause of ADHD is not clear, the steps necessary for certification here: medications for other reasons (e.g., but there is a genetic component. Its bit.ly/2CZobso fatigue) must be screened even with - development is also linked to expo - 6 FAA Safety Briefing

HAVE YOU EQUIPPED ?

You must be equipped with ADS-B Out to fly

in most controlled airspace.

FOR MORE INFO VISIT

faa.gov/go/equipadsb

Keeping Control of Avionics and Automation

By Susan Parson

Along with “Oh [expletive!],” “What’s it doing now ?” might now be one of aviation’s best-known memes. Not so very long ago, most GA airplanes sported the same familiar six-pack of gauges in the panel. Sure, some pilots were lucky enough to have whiz-bang LORAN navigation or maybe a horizontal situation indicator (HSI). As for automation, well, even the simplest one-axis autopilots were not exactly standard issue.

8 FAA Safety Briefing Modern avionics can offer excellent situational aware - ness but can also introduce significant complexity.

Photos courtesy of Garmin.

Adding to Your “A” Game Leading Edge vs. Bleeding Edge Things are very different today. When pilots ask me what To keep cutting-edge avionics equipment from hurting the “aviate” part of the familiar aviate/navigate/commu - you, your passengers, and/or your airplane, being Pilot in nicate mantra means in practical terms, I used to explain Command (PIC) now includes more than just mechanical that it means maintaining control of a ttitude, a irspeed, and manipulation of stick and rudder. It also means mastery of a ltitude. Today, though, we need to include another pair of three key flight management skills: information manage - “A” words: a vionics and a utomation. ment , automation management , and risk management .

As with many changes, the rapid adoption of jetlin - Information Management. An axiom of aviation training er-level avionics and automation is one of those good is that the volume of information is akin to drinking from news/bad news developments. The good news is that these a fire hose. Learning new avionics/automation equipment technologies offer GA pilots an unprecedented level of situ - follows that pattern. Even without diving into sub-menus, a ational awareness on everything from aircraft control/per - pilot can be drenched in data but thirsty for useful informa - formance to traffic, terrain, and weather. The not-so-good tion (e.g., how to find a specific piece of information). To news is that the complexity of this technology can quickly know your avionics means using your preferred combina - transform a Pilot in Command to a Pilot in Confusion. tion of apps, simulation software, manuals, and time on the We are all vulnerable to this hazard. Programming is flight deck to understand the system on two levels.

generally easier now than it was in the 1.0 versions, but So-called “knob-ology” is the most obvious, and you do managing modern avionics/automation still requires a sub - need to master the basic functions of each control interface.

stantial amount of heads-down time. The risk for confusion This part of information management includes both actual further expands for pilots who don’t specialize in a single buttons and electronic versions presented on a screen.

brand of avionics. If you flew one six-pack, you knew them It is perhaps even more important to master the system all. With glass, though, manufacturers like Aspen, Avidyne, at the conceptual level. Knowing how your system is orga - and Garmin all have different ways of arranging buttons nized is far more effective (and far less frustrating) than and performing functions. Things get even dodgier when attempting to memorize every possible sequence of button you pilot “Frankenplanes,” my preferred term for older pushes, pulls, and turns.

birds with a mash-up of newer avionics stitched in. The next phase of information management is learning But wait — there’s more. When everything works right, to meter, manage, and prioritize the information flow to or as expected, our gadgets tempt us to neglect not only accomplish specific tasks. For this task, you might find it our see-and-avoid responsibilities, but also a vast swath helpful to direct the fire hose information flow into a few of the flight management work. They lull us away from conceptual drinking glasses. These include personal prefer - the discipline of critical thinking and true situational ence (e.g., map orientation and configuration) and phase of awareness, which means a lot more than knowing your flight (e.g., map scale for en route vs. terminal area).

physical location. Automation Management. The automatic flight control It all adds up to two simple facts. First, avionics and system, otherwise known as the autopilot or more affec - automation do reduce some kinds of pilot workload, but tionately, “George,” can be a lifesaver. Like a mischievous they create a whole new set of tasks. Second, a pilot who child, though, George can also make trouble for an unwary steps out of the loop by shirking these tasks will inevitably pilot. At the most basic level, managing automation first encounter a time when everything is perfect … until sud - means knowing how the system works (aka “knobology”). It denly nothing makes sense. also means knowing at all times which modes are engaged, January / February 2020 9 and which modes are armed to engage. To reinforce this Left Seat = Right Stuff mindset, I always require pilots to read the display out loud.

You had to demonstrate mastery of all the proverbial right For example: Heading mode is ENGAGED, and aircraft stuff before you were allowed to take the left seat as PIC.

is following the heading bug on the e-HSI to intercept the No matter how capable the avionics and automation appear desired course. Navigation mode is ARMED to capture to be, keep it in its proper place and never vacate your seat the desired course upon intercept. Altitude hold mode is to mere technology.

ENGAGED to maintain pre-selected altitude of 4,500 MSL.

Keep in mind that George may not be the only piece of Susan Parson (susan.parson@faa.gov) is editor of FAA Safety Briefing and a automation you need to manage. Depending on the sys - Special Assistant in the FAA’s Flight Standards Service. She is a general aviation tem, you may or may not need to adjust sensitivity of the pilot and flight instructor.

course deviation indicator (CDI) needle for the appropri - ate flight operation. Similarly, you may or may not have to switch the active navigation from GPS to LOC for an ILS or localizer approach.

ADS-B Avionics

While on the subject of navigation source, sound auto - ADS-B is an environmentally mation management also requires a thorough understand - friendly technology that ing of how the autopilot interacts with the other systems.

enhances safety and With some installations (especially on the “Frankenplane” efficiency by moving from today’s ground-based radar and retrofits), changing the navigation source from GPS to LOC navigational aids to precise tracking using satellite-based, or VOR while the autopilot is engaged in NAV course track - GPS technology. With ADS-B Out, your aircraft automatically ing mode can cause the autopilot’s NAV mode to disengage.

broadcasts its own three-dimensional, position information (latitude, longitude, altitude) and other location details including heading, ground track, and groundspeed to air

The good news is today’s avionics

traffic control and to other aircraft that are equipped with ADS-B In, thus greatly improving situational awareness for offer GA pilots an unprecedented you and other aircraft around you. The precision provided by level of situational awareness.

ADS-B allows your aircraft to fly more directly from point A to

The not-so-good news is that its

B, saving time, money, and reducing fuel burn and emissions.

complexity can quickly transform

You’ll also enjoy more efficient spacing and optimal routing in non-radar environments, including the busy airspace in the

a Pilot in Command to a Pilot in

Gulf of Mexico, mountainous regions of Colorado, and the Confusion.

lower altitudes of Alaska. Air traffic controllers tracking ADS-B Out-equipped aircraft now have much better information about last reported positions and velocity, effectively taking Risk Management. Pilots who permit advanced avionics the “search” out of search and rescue.

and automation to lull them into a passenger-in-com - If you choose to add avionics and displays for ADS-B In, you mand role are likely to find some very sharp corners in this will see, for the first time, what controllers see: displays cutting-edge technology. Good risk management of this showing other aircraft in the sky, and the location of aircraft technology requires that you: and equipped ground vehicles on airport surfaces — even • Know the limits. Even if the panel of a GA airplane looks at night or during heavy rainfall. ADS-B In cockpit advisory more modern than its airline counterpart, there are still services are free and transmit automatically to your device limits to what a light GA aircraft can safely do.

delivering visual displays of traffic, important flight • Never trust; always verify. The magenta line can very effi - information such as temporary flight restrictions or closed ciently lead you into regulatory or topographical trouble.

runways, and pinpointing hazardous weather and terrain to help you to make more efficient route decisions.

• Stay engaged. One of the best techniques for situational awareness is callouts — even for single pilot operations.

While it’s true that ADS-B In provides an unprecedented Callouts help you make the most of your gadgetry, while level of situational awareness, don’t become complacent keeping you firmly in the role of PIC. They are also a by over-relying on the technology or spending too much great way to catch your programming mistakes.

time in “heads-down” mode gazing at the colorful displays.

Always remember your see-and-avoid responsibilities and • Set Tripwires. If you find yourself baffled, confused, or in don’t forget to fly the aircraft first.

any way uncertain about what the technology is doing, it’s time to turn it off and reorient yourself.

10 FAA Safety Briefing

The

Beating

Heart

How Your Engine Works and How to “Treat” It

By James Williams

n airplane’s engine is the closest thing it has to a heart. The engine provides the energy that not only propels the airplane, but also runs all of the other

A systems. The engine turns the alternator that pro -

vides the electricity. It runs the various pumps that power systems like hydraulics, pressurization, etc.

For most of us in general aviation, an engine means an internal combustion engine. Specifically, it means a recip - rocating engine, a term that simply denotes the back and forth motion of the pistons. The goal of the engine is to transform potential energy stored in fuel into mechanical energy that powers your airplane, with the help of some air.

Basic Anatomy An engine has several basic components. First is the cyl - inder, where combustion occurs. Next is the piston, which nests inside the cylinder from the bottom and provides the compression for, and absorption of energy from, combus - tion. Supporting the piston is the connecting rod, which transmits energy down to the crankshaft, transferring it out of the engine, usually to a propeller.

As its name implies, the cylinder head sits on top of the cylinder and houses critical components like valves and spark plugs. The valves open to allow the air and fuel mix - ture into the cylinder (the intake valve) and to allow com - busted gases out (the exhaust valve). The spark plug ignites the compressed fuel and air, transforming that chemical energy into mechanical energy that spins the crankshaft and turns the propeller.

Now that we know the basics, let’s see how these parts work together.

Main components of a spark ignition reciprocating engine.

January / February 2020 11 The crankshaft is shaped to accommodate each piston being in a different position during the firing sequence. That’s what provides the energy for the non-power strokes.

And One, Two, Three, Four, Repeat! Supporting Cast Aircraft engines are, with few exceptions, four-stroke engines Engine cooling is one of the systems that helps your engine with four distinct phases: intake, compression, power, and work. Internal combustion engines turn most of the energy exhaust. During the intake stroke, the piston lowers from from combustion into waste heat. While most of that is the top of the cylinder while the intake valve opens to let in sent out through the exhaust, a significant amount of heat the fuel/air mixture. The compression stroke begins when remains. Our engines are generally air cooled, so logic the intake valve closes and the piston begins to rise toward suggests that more air equals better cooling. Consequently, the top of the cylinder. The power stroke kicks off when the the nacelle contains ducts and baffles that direct air flow spark plug ignites the compressed fuel/air mixture, causing evenly across the engine’s cooling surfaces, thus keeping the combustion that pushes the piston back down forcefully. The engine’s operating temperature balanced. If these baffles are exhaust stroke starts when the piston reaches bottom dead removed or damaged, excessive heat buildup in part of the center and begins to rise again to push out burned gases engine can lead to additional wear and possibly failure.

through the open exhaust valve. Then we start all over again. In addition to cooling, an engine needs air and fuel. An Although we break the process down into separate steps, the intake manifold guides the mixture into the cylinder and reality is that it is more of a continuous process. fuel is added via the carburetor or fuel injectors. The car - buretor remains the most common solution. Carburetors are the older technology but have the advantage of being a well-tested, less complex, and very reliable solution.

Never forget to check the oil, which

is the lifeblood of the engine.

The arrows in this illustration indicate the direction of motion of Outside air aids in cooling the engine.

the crankshaft and piston during the four-stroke cycle.

12 FAA Safety Briefing

An airplane’s

engine is the

closest thing it

has to a heart. The

engine provides

the energy that

propels the

airplane and

runs all the other

systems.

Fuel injection allows greater control and greater effi - or damaged fuel or oil lines. Visually check connections to ciency, but is more complex. Carburetors do have one dis - the greatest possible extent; loose wires or lines can chafe tinct disadvantage: carburetor icing can choke the engine. and quickly turn a minor issue into a major emergency.

Carb heat is a simple solution to this specific problem, but Never forget to check the oil, which is the lifeblood of you do have to activate it. the engine. It helps transfer heat from the hot parts of the Then there’s the exhaust system, which transfers the engine to areas where it can be safely dissipated. More spent gases and heat out of the cylinder. The exhaust importantly, it lubricates the engine so that it can function system ushers the hot combustion gases safely out of efficiently. Oil starvation, whether from leakage, burning, the engine compartment and into a muffler. Despite its or just breakdown is one of the common causes of airplane humble description, the exhaust system is absolutely safety “cardiac” events. Also bear in mind that oil degrades over critical. For more information, take a look at the article, time, becoming less effective at its job. Regardless of the “(Un) Holy Smoke! The Nightmare of Smoke, Fire, and cause, insufficient lubrication can result in serious damage.

Deadly Gas,” in our September/October 2019 issue at Monitoring not just the amount of oil but also its condition https://adobe.ly/34ckY59 . during preflight is critical.

One way to get more power from an engine is to Modern avionics and engine tracking systems have increase the amount of air and fuel in the cylinder during made detecting problems a more proactive process. Data combustion. This can be done through forced induction, analysis can allow for intervention before an emergency.

more commonly called turbocharging or supercharging. When coupled with a better understanding of the engine Turbocharging is more common in today’s GA airplanes, and a thorough preflight, they can be a major positive but both techniques essentially do the same thing. They force. It’s always better to find a problem in the data rather compress intake air to force more air and fuel into the than in the air.

engine than normal atmospheric conditions will allow. The difference is that turbocharging uses the engine’s exhaust James Williams is FAA Safety Briefing’s associate editor and photo editor. He is also a pilot and ground instructor.

gases to power the compressor while a supercharger taps the engine’s power output. For more information on forced induction, see “The Bigger Bang Theory” in our May/June LEARN MORE 2015 issue (p.26) at go.usa.gov/xpPxz.

Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge — Chapter 7 Heart Health bit.ly/354k5ex Now that we know how the airplane engine works, let’s look at a few ways this “heart” can run into trouble. During preflight, it’s important to look for any evidence of leaking January / February 2020 13

Photo courtesy of Cessna.

The

Arthropod’s Revenge

By James Williams

How the Airplane’s Fuselage Has More in Common With Bugs Than Birds

reepy as it might be, “bugs” and their cousins might be a more apt analogy for an airplane than a bird. For starters, a modern airplane’s fuselage functions as

C both a skin and a skeleton, a feature that resembles an

arthropod more closely than members of the avian family.

One of the key features of arthropods is their exoskeleton, which combines the protective attributes of a skin with the structural attributes of a skeleton. This feature relates to an aircraft’s skin, which is actually a structural load bearing part.

Monowhat?

Modern airplanes are built using a method called mono - coque construction. This method uses stressed skin as the main structural component. To help visualize this, think of a soda can. The skin sits around two bulkheads, or formers (the top and bottom of the can), providing a surprisingly strong unit when undamaged. Key advantages of monoco - que construction include high strength, light weight, and increased internal volume potential. An important goal with aircraft design is to have the lightest airplane that can hold the most stuff (e.g., people and cargo) while being rugged enough to withstand the rigors of flight.

Monocoque construction does have a few drawbacks.

Even small dents or dings can potentially weaken the struc - ture. You can run your own experiment to prove this point.

Take any empty soda can (undented) and apply a downward Semi-monocoque and monocoque fuselage design.

force on the top. You’ll be surprised by how much force the can will withstand. Now make a slight dent in the can and 14 FAA Safety Briefing Photo by Tracy Potter, Hagerstown Aircraft Services.

The internal construction of a semi-monocoque airplane showing damage from a wildlife strike.

watch how little force is required to crush it. That’s a perfect materials. Weight can be another advantage of composites example of the Achilles heel of monocoque construction. but that depends on the material. While carbon fiber can To counter this problem, manufacturers use a method have dramatic weight savings over metal construction, called semi-monocoque construction, which incorporates fiberglass generally does not.

reinforcing stringers that run longitudinally between the The use of composites has slowly grown in general avia - bulkheads and formers. This method allows some of the tion. It started with small, non-structural parts like wing tip stress to be transferred from the skin to the structural fairings and wheel pants but has progressed to the whole reinforcement. It makes the structure more robust but adds aircraft. We usually see fiberglass in GA because the cost is weight and complexity to the finished product. substantially lower than carbon fiber. Fiberglass also allows manufacturers to try designs that would be very difficult or Composite Composition impossible to build in metal.

We often talk about composite materials as futuristic or Taking Care to Keep Yourself in the Air high tech, but that’s not really true in many cases. In its most basic definition, a composite is a combination of two Regardless of material, an airplane’s fuselage is more akin or more different materials, in which all individual prop - to the exoskeleton of an arthropod than a vertebrate body.

erties of the material are preserved. The best example is Birds have a skin that is important, but it isn’t a structural decidedly low tech: concrete. Concrete is a combination member. When combined with muscle tissue, birds’ skin of cement and small rocks and stones (called aggregate). provides some padding around their “structure” and offers These are the two requirements for a composite material: some protection when “dented or dinged.” But airplanes and a matrix or binder (the cement) and a reinforcement (the arthropods wear their skeleton on the outside. This is why aggregate). The reinforcement makes up most of the vol - spotting potential damage during preflight is so critical.

ume and carries most of the load, while the matrix holds What to look for varies depending on the material. Metal the reinforcement together and allows it to be shaped. In aircraft can be easier to inspect because metal deforms aviation, we use things like fiberglass and carbon fiber that from impact force. For example, if an Aviation Maintenance follow the same principle. A glass fiber, sometimes woven Technician (AMT) drops a tool while working on the air - into fabric, is laid down as the reinforcement and then a craft, you will see a dent. Significant dents, dings, and punc - resin or glue is applied as the matrix. This is usually done in tures should be referred to an AMT to be evaluated. When several layers to provide strength. in doubt, err towards caution. As with the soda can exam - Shaping is actually one of the key advantages of com - ple, the actual dent might not look all that bad, but it could posites. It’s far easier to create smooth, rounded, or cause significant risk by compromising the monocoque.

complex shapes with composites than with traditional In the case of composites, it’s possible for the material to January / February 2020 15

Regardless of material, an

airplane’s fuselage is more akin to

the exoskeleton of an arthropod

than a vertebrate body.

Photo courtesy of Pipistrel Aircraft.

Applying resin to a woven fabric style of reinforcement is one common method of creating a composite material.

absorb an impact without showing damage or to bounce back into shape after impact. Unfortunately, such “invisi - ble” damage can cause delamination between the layers of fiber, or cracks in the matrix that can weaken the structure.

This is why you need to have an AMT with composite experience evaluate any impact. The appearance of a whit - ish area in a composite may indicate delamination below.

Impact energy affects the visibility, as well as the severity, of damage in composite With composites, there are also possible issues with structures. High and medium energy impacts, while severe, are easy to detect. Low energy impacts can easily cause hidden damage.

extreme heat damaging the resin. Much depends on the particular resin system used for the aircraft, but some res - ins can weaken above 150 ̊ F. While that seems out of reach, an aircraft’s skeleton. It plays a critical role without much remember that aircraft are often parked in warm climates fanfare. But like any skeleton, its faults and failures can be where sun, asphalt, and dark paint can combine to push at best disabling, and at worst crippling. Understanding at temperatures to 220 ̊ F. The simple fix is to paint composite least a little about it will help you detect any flaws before structures white, which helps keep temperatures below they become real problems.

140 ̊ F. Other sources of heat damage include exhaust leaks and minor fires that are quickly extinguished — like those James Williams is FAA Safety Briefing ’s associate editor and photo editor. He is from overheated brakes or electrical faults. Any poten - also a pilot and ground instructor.

tial thermal damage should be evaluated carefully before returning the aircraft to service.

LEARN MORE Final Thoughts on the Fuselage FAA Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge — Chapter 3 The fuselage doesn’t attract the attention of an airplane’s bit.ly/2rK57Mq avionics or its engine. It’s not analyzed as closely as its wings or preflighted as intricately as its empennage. It is 16 FAA Safety Briefing

L’Empennage

A Guided Tour of Your

Plane’s Tail Feathers

By Tom Hoffmann

consider myself to be a decent dart thrower. It helped glider concepts, the Wrights struggled mightily with adverse being able to live in London for a year where the game is yaw. When they raised a wing after a turn, the aircraft some - known to have its medieval roots. As my interest in the times slipped in the opposite direction and spun into the I sport grew, so did my curiosity about the types of darts ground — a result notoriously dubbed “well-digging.” I used, as well as understanding how all the different parts It took some tweaking and scores of test flights, but they and pieces worked. I was intrigued when learning how criti - soon realized the key to controlled flight was adjustable cal “flights” are to the stability of a dart’s trajectory, and how rudder control. After a significant “aha” moment, they clev - design variations can cater to an individual’s throwing style. erly combined their wing-warping mechanism for aileron Flights are the tail part of the dart, typically made of plastic, control to include the rudder, introducing a moveable tail paper, or even feathers. If you’ve ever tried tossing a flight- that provided additional stability. While their initial design less dart, you’ll see exactly how critical they are. schemes called for the elevator to be forward of the pilot The stability-inducing properties of flights work simi - and separate from the rudder, experiments with their later larly for arrows and, by extension, aircraft. In fact, the word Model AB design proved that the elevator controls worked empennage, which describes the tail assembly of an aircraft, derives from the French term empenner , to feather an arrow. The empennage is considered one of the five major components of an aircraft. It includes the entire tail assem - bly, comprising both fixed surfaces (vertical and horizontal stabilizers) and moveable control surfaces (rudder, elevator, and trim tabs). These components work together to provide stability and control around an aircraft’s yaw and pitch axes.

Copyright Smithsonian Institution Doing It the Wright Way Look no further than the Wright Brothers’ body of work for evidence of how important yaw and pitch control was The Wright Flyer Model B paved the way for the conventional style empennage in finalizing a successful Wright Flyer design. In their early we see in most aircraft today.

January / February 2020 17 An assortment of aircraft tail designs: (l-r) T-tail, twin-tail, conventional, V-tail, and a conventional tail with a stabilator horizontal stabilizer.

best when located at the back of the aircraft. Shortly there - more difficult. Be sure to consult your Airplane Flight Man - after, the Wrights ushered in the Model B , or the “Headless ual for any specific preflight inspection procedures, as well Wright,” the first of their aircraft to use the conventional as any inflight loading limitations.

style empennage we predominantly see in today’s aircraft. Some common GA examples of the T-tail design include the Piper Tomahawk , the Beechcraft Skipper and gliders like Birds of a Different (Tail) Feather the Grob 103. This empennage style more safely accommo - dates parachute and cargo operations for aircraft like the Just as in dart flight variations, there are variations of air - Boeing C-17. Although commonly reserved for aft-podded craft tail assemblies, each with its own unique aeronautical military or business jet aircraft, a further variation of the benefits. Although it has evolved slightly from the Model T-tail is the cruciform tail in which the horizontal stabilizer B , the most common arrangement is the tried-and-true is moved part way up the vertical stabilizer. A good GA conventional tail design, which consists of a single vertical example of the cruciform tail design is the Rockwell Com - stabilizer that intersects with a two-part horizontal stabilizer mander 112/114 series.

at the end of the fuselage. You’ll see this century-old config - That brings us further down the alphabet to the V-tail, uration on everything from a Boeing 787 to a Cessna 152.

the claim-to-fame design for the Beechcraft Bonanza V35.

The T-tail design is a popular variation of the conven - The intent of this design was to consolidate the control tional style, but with the horizontal stabilizer positioned surface functions of the rudder and elevator with two on top of the vertical fin in the shape of the letter “T.” This slanted tail surfaces to reduce weight and drag. These configuration increases the efficiency of the horizontal “ruddervators” would deflect in the same direction when stabilizer since it remains outside the effects of prop wash used to control pitch, and in opposite directions when used and wing wake. However, due to their placement, T-tails to control yaw. One drawback is that V-tail pilots have to impose a greater bending and twisting load on the vertical contend with an undesirable rolling motion (the “ Bonanza stabilizer, requiring a stronger and often heavier structure.

Boogie”) that occurs away from a turn and which must be The configuration also requires a more complex elevator countered with aileron input. This adverse coupling is one cable run and makes preflight inspection of the elevator reason why the manufacturer switched to a conventional tail in later Bonanza models.

Another empennage style worth mentioning is the dual or twin-tail design, which consists of two small vertical sta - bilizers on either side of the horizontal stabilizer. A prime example is the ERCO Ercoupe , which has its share of faith - ful followers. One of those Ercoupe enthusiasts happens to be author, race pilot, and frequent contributor to this magazine, William Dubois, who is quick to point out its unique safety features and handling prowess. “The rudders are inter-connected to the yoke and the nose wheel on most ‘Coupes, so there are no rudder pedals in the cockpit, and no ball to step on,” says Dubois. This design keeps the plane in coordinated flight at all times. Dubois adds that if the plane is rigged properly, it can’t spin, since you can’t enter a stall uncoordinated. However, this configuration also pre - vents you from being able to slip the aircraft and requires you to crab to the runway during a crosswind landing.

Empennage components 18 FAA Safety Briefing airplanes use rudder trim tabs to aid with yaw control

It’s important to always be familiar

during single engine operations.

with what type of control and

Yet another type of tab you’ll often see on rudders are the ground adjustable tabs. As their name implies, these trim surfaces are installed on your stationary metal tabs are designed to be bent on the ground

aircraft so they can be properly

in order to correct for left or right skidding tendencies in inspected during preflight.

cruise flight.

On Closer Inspection It’s Under Control It’s important to always be familiar with what type of Within each of the tail assemblies discussed here are the control and trim surfaces are installed on your aircraft moveable control surfaces — the rudder and elevator — so they can be properly inspected during preflight. Are which allow the pilot to control yaw and pitch respectively.

all surfaces properly installed and secured, including any Some empennage designs incorporate the elevator function hardware, fasteners, hinges, and counterweights? Have into a one-piece horizontal stabilizer, known as a stabilator, you checked for normal directional movement, including which pivots from a central hinge point. Although stabi - trim controls? Was there any maintenance performed lators are more commonly found on military jets (their recently? Discovering an improperly rigged flight control design aids with efficiency of pitch control at supersonic in flight can get ugly fast.

speeds), airplanes like the Piper Cherokee and the Cessna When preflighting your empennage, also check the 177 do sport this design.

condition of any antennae, lights, cargo doors, and if pos - A key benefit of a stabilator is that it generates a large sible, your Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT). Keep pitching moment with minimal control force effort, but an eye out for loose or missing rivets, wrinkled or dam - that can also make the elevator a bit touchy and easy to aged skin, and any bouts of hangar rash, to which the tail over control. This design includes an anti-servo tab, which is particularly prone. Oh yeah, you might want to remove deflects further and in the same direction as the stabilator that tail tie down too!

to increase the control force feel for the pilot. Anti-servo While differences in empennage styles abound, its core tabs can also be found on aircraft with more traditional function across all aircraft remains vitally important. Hope - elevator designs, like the sprightly AA-1 Yankee , to provide fully this information has introduced and/or reinforced additional stability.

some helpful pointers on better understanding your bird’s tail feathers. Keeping this important part of your aircraft Staying Fit and Trim regularly groomed and maintained will help you stay safe Since we’re on the subject of trim controls, let’s run and get the most out of your aircraft.

through the other types of tabs you might come across. A balance tab works in the opposite manner of the anti-servo Tom Hoffmann is the managing editor of FAA Safety Briefing . He is a commercial tab, in that it moves in the opposite direction of the con - pilot and holds an A&P certificate.

trol surface changing its relative position. This allows the pilot to reduce or eliminate control pressure requirements during steady state flight conditions. More common is the LEARN MORE single trim tab system attached to the trailing edge of the elevator or rudder. These small mechanically or electron - Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Chap. 6, Flight ically adjustable airfoils are used to eliminate an unbal - Controls anced pitch or roll condition during flight without having go.usa.gov/xpKBR to move the primary flight controls. Some multi-engine January / February 2020 19

The

Wing’s

The

Thing

How Wing Design Affects Your Ride, and How to Preflight for Safety

By Jennifer Caron

dmit it — there are things you don’t know, but

should know, about aircraft wings. In particular, do The shape and size of a wing

you know how their shape or design determines

greatly affect an aircraft’s

A the type of flying you experience, or pros and cons

performance.

of different wing types? Although wings are the “heart of the aircraft,” too often they do not receive a proper pre- or post-flight examination. Critical parts such as pitot tubes 1. Wing Placement and aileron balance weights are often overlooked.

Some might argue that the difference in wing placement Read on to learn more about your aircraft wings, the (high versus low, etc.) is chiefly a personal preference, but pros and cons, and how to properly inspect them before there are some important variations in aircraft performance and after your flight.

to consider. Here are some general pros and cons of each.

Wing Placement Pros Cons

• Greater stability, particularly at slower speeds • In-flight traffic visibility High-Wings: impaired upward • Better downward visibility (Cessna 172, Aeropilot Legend • Impaired visibility in base to 600 Light-Sport) • Greater roll stability final turn (inside wing) • Higher center of lift • Less maneuverable • Shorter landing distances • Fueling access • Ideal trainer for new pilots • Easier landing during roundout and flare • Earlier warning of impending stall 20 FAA Safety Briefing

Wing Placement Pros Cons

• Better maneuverability and lighter body • Less downward visibility and Low-Wings: ground clearance • Upward and forward visibility of in-flight traffic (Piper Cherokee , Mooneys, Beechcraft • Floating and ballooning during Bonanza ) • Better visibility in base to final turn landing flare • Lower interference drag • Less warning of impending stall • More lift and steeper climbs • Higher airspeeds • Better fuel volume Figure 1 2. Wing Structure 3. Wing Shape/Planform Many high-wing airplanes are semi-cantilevered, mean - The shape and size of a wing greatly affect an aircraft’s per - ing they have external bracings or struts attached to the formance. Three factors are used in wing design to modify fuselage. Positioned halfway out on the wing, they help the overall aerodynamic characteristics of flight: aspect support the wing and carry aerodynamic and landing ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback.

loads. A few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes Aspect ratio, the length and breadth of the wing, has an have a full cantilever wing that’s designed to carry loads important effect on a wing’s lifting capabilities and drag without external bracing. Aircraft with a full cantilever (Figure 3). An increase in aspect ratio with constant velocity wing structure are much stronger than aircraft using will decrease drag (induced drag), especially at high angles of external braces. attack, improving wing performance in a climbing attitude.

Strut-braced wings, in general, stiffen and strengthen the airframe while allowing a lighter overall aircraft. For example, a biplane with its two, strut-braced stiffened wings is lighter and stronger than a single-winged, braced monoplane. The downside to external bracing is additional drag, reduced speed, and less fuel economy, whereas a monoplane is more efficient with the lowest drag.

One key part of a wing that is often overlooked or unknown is balance weights (Figure 2).

Pilots know about the two control surfaces attached to the rear or trailing edges of the wings: ailerons and flaps.

Courtesy of the Experimental Aircraft Association.

Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing out - ward toward the tip. Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. However, many pilots are not familiar with the function of balance weights, which are used to balance out an aircraft design in the ailerons (as well as elevators, propellers, and engines) and eliminate or reduce excessive vibration (flutter). If not controlled, flutter can result in damage or failure to not only the stabilizers and the wing itself, but also to the ailerons and elevators, as they’re more prone to this type of dangerous vibration.

Aileron balance weights are teardrop shaped and are located at the leading edge of each of the ailerons ahead of the hinge line (typically three on each aileron). It is import - ant to check balance weights at each and every preflight, as flying without balanced controls can spell disaster.

Figure 2 January / February 2020 21

Wing Aspect Ratio Pros Cons

• Aerodynamically efficient • Less maneuverability and High Aspect: more parasitic drag • Greater lift (Gliders/Sailplanes, Long Hauls, • Wings must be stronger Transport Loads) • Uses less fuel to support air loads, i.e., • Greater roll stability heavier/expensive to prevent bends and twists • Smaller wingtip equals less induced drag equals better to structure performance in takeoffs, landings, cruise, and climb • Less fuel volume • Greater maneuverability • Less lift and reduced roll Low Aspect: stability • Lighter structure (Piper Cherokee , Aerobatics) • Greater induced drag and • Greater fuel volume reduced speed • Thicker wingtip equals less parasitic drag equals high • Uses more fuel speed performance • Cheaper to make Figure 3

Wing Design Pros Cons

• Stable airfoil and wing control • Greater induced drag Rectangular: • Adequate stall warning at wing root with aileron control • Less efficient than (Piper Tomahawk) elliptical wing • Ideal for trainers and low speed aircraft — easy to fly and land • Cheaper, easier to make and design • Lower induced drag • Stalls at tips, wing Tapered: (P-51 Mustang) washout required • Higher aspect ratio equals greater lift • Greater fuel volume • Greater maneuverability/stability • Increased induced drag Delta: due to design • Ideal for sub- and super-sonic (Homebuilt Dyke JD-2 Delta Kitplane) • High angle of attack to • Large fuel volume maintain lift • Cheaper to make Figure 4 22 FAA Safety Briefing Other wing designs, such as the elliptical and swept wing planforms, are observed on military aircraft, specifically the Supermarine Spitfire and the Dassault 3G.

5. Wing Pre- and Postflight Checklist Preflight inspection is one of the most important steps you can take to ensure that your aircraft is fit for flight — and that includes inspection of your aircraft wings. Use this checklist as a guide in developing your own personalized system to inspect your wings before and after each and every flight.

Wing Pre- and Postflight Checklist: • Wing tips for cracks, loose or missing rivets; bolt security; general condition of wings and covering for torn fabric, bulges, wrinkles; aircraft at unimproved airports: prone to erosion on wing leading edges.

• Staining, dripping, puddles of fuel, oils anywhere on the wing or where a fuel tank is mounted, no matter the age of stains; rivet lines for fuel leakage on wet-wing fuel tanks.

• Wing strut attachment points for bows, bends; external Different types of wing planforms.

bracing attachments and spar lines for distortion, cracks, security; internal brace fittings at wing attachment.

A thin, long wing for instance has a high aspect ratio and • Deicing: weeping wings, hot wings, inspect boots for therefore a better lift to drag ratio. It’s more aerodynami - cally efficient, generates more lift with less drag, consumes leakage, attachment.

less fuel, and is ideal for sustained flight in subsonic • Landing gear that retracts into wing, nacelle — clean, check aircraft. Longer wings are not as maneuverable as shorter frequently.

wings, but they’re best at low speeds and high altitudes, and • Position lights on wingtips for operation right, left.

are usually more forgiving of improper pilot techniques.

Most training and GA airplanes are operated at high coeffi - • Aileron, flap hinges, actuators for cleanliness, lubrication, cients of lift and require high aspect ratios.

dents, cracks, excess play, hinge pins, bolts for security, Low aspect ratios are seen in thick, wide wings. A condition; movable surfaces for full freedom of movement decrease in aspect ratio provides a corresponding increase includes full aileron, elevator, rudder deflection in all in drag. Very low aspect ratios result in high wing load - directions (which is often overlooked). In low-winged aircraft, ings, high stall speeds, and higher fuel consumption. They bend/crouch to inspect under wings, flaps, ailerons.

provide greater maneuverability than wings with high • Aileron balance weights for cracks, security; lift up aileron to aspect ratios, but what you get in movement, you lose in check security of the rivets holding balance weight in place.

speed and fuel.

• Pitot or pitot-static port(s), check drain holes for blockage, The majority of typical GA aircraft have aspect ratios insects, water, never blow air into tube to clear; check both that range anywhere from 5-9 (gross Aspect Ratio); home - holes large (in front), small (in back) for blockage.

builts: 4-7; gliders: 20-35; and supersonics: 3-5.

• Postflight: inspect under wings and other fuel tank locations 4. Wing Design for fuel stains.

Taper ratio and the sweepback, or rearward slant of a wing, • Post-storage: inspect for bird nests inside wings, control are two other design ratios used in wing design. Tapering surfaces, and damage to rib stitching from mice.

(decreasing the length of chord from the root to the tip of • Winter: inspect wings, control surfaces for snow — it can melt the wing), causes a decrease in drag (most effective at high and freeze inside controls.

speeds) and an increase in lift.

Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback can be mixed to create different flying experiences. In Figure 4, you’ll see some Jennifer Caron is FAA Safety Briefing ’s copy editor and quality assurance lead.

typical GA design configurations and their pros and cons.

She is a certified technical writer-editor in aviation safety and flight standards.

January / February 2020 23

hile its value is sometimes overlooked and under - estimated, your aircraft’s landing gear is one of its Give Me a Brake ...

hardest working parts. The stress of takeoffs and

W landings aside, your landing gear is also hard at

work well after you have turned off the ignition and parked,

And Maybe a Tire

supporting the weight of your airframe and powerplant around the clock. Let’s take a closer look at this perpetually purposeful part to further appreciate its valiant role.

and a Strut Too

Keeping It Wheel A typical GA aircraft landing gear uses three wheels: two main wheels and a third either on the nose (tricycle gear),

Understanding Your

or at the rear of the aircraft (conventional gear).

Most modern GA aircraft employ the tricycle gear

Undercarriage

configuration with a steerable nosewheel. A tricycle gear airplane allows for more forceful braking without the risk of nosing over, and it offers pilots better visibility during taxi, takeoff, and landing. Its forward center of gravity (CG)

By Tom Hoffmann

also provides more directional stability.

Conventional or tailwheel gear aircraft have a more rear - ward CG, so directional control is a little more daunting.

A ground loop can occur if the heavier tail swerves around to get ahead of the main gear during ground operations.

Ground loops can cause serious damage to aircraft and in some extreme cases, have resulted in fatalities. Another operational impediment is a tailwheel’s limited forward visibility on or near the ground. These factors prompted the FAA to require specific training for a tailwheel endorse - ment. On the flip side, though, a tailwheel’s nose up ground attitude has more room for a larger propeller. It is also bet - ter suited for backcountry operation on rough, unimproved fields. (In my personal, non-objective opinion, they also look pretty darn cool.)

Don’t Steer Me Wrong There are several different ways to steer an aircraft on the ground. Conventional gear aircraft with a free-moving tailwheel use just the rudder to steer, relying on airflow over the tail from the engine or forward motion. Taildrag - gers can also have steering linkage with the tailwheel in the cockpit, or rely on differential braking to turn the aircraft.

Tricycle gear aircraft typically rely on having a direct steering link to the nosewheel that is controlled by the rudder pedals, or a tiller on many larger aircraft. Although easier to operate, nosewheel steered aircraft are normally heavier and more prone to damage. They also have a tendency to shimmy during landing either from a worn shimmy damper, or insufficient back pressure to relieve weight off the nose.

24 FAA Safety Briefing Aircraft like the Cirrus SR22 or Diamond DA-20 use a castering (free-moving) nosewheel that requires differential braking to maneuver on the ground. This setup is gener - ally lighter and easier to maintain, but can be a bit tricky in windy conditions. It can also wear brakes down faster.

Intermittent toe taps can help with preventing brake dam - age or overheating.

Squeaky Clean, or Down and Dirty We can further categorize landing gear into two main camps: fixed or retractable. Fixed gear aficionados tout sim - plicity and minimal maintenance — “the fewer the moving parts, the better.” Today’s composite materials along with aerodynamic wheel pants and fairings can reduce the para - site drag traditionally caused by a fixed gear.

Retractable gear tidies up the aircraft’s profile and offers greater aerodynamic efficiency and speed. It also provides more gliding range if the engine fails. However, that 15-20 knot gain in cruise speed may be offset by the increased weight of a retractable system, which includes hydraulic pumps and actuators. Remember too that a faster aircraft will have more parasite drag. If you’re considering a retractable gear aircraft, run the numbers to see if saving 20 minutes on your next airport diner dash is worth the weight and hassle.

Hassle includes higher insurance and maintenance costs, as well as the greater potential for things to break down.

Strut Your Stuff Piper Cub bungee cord landing gear transfer landing loads to the airframe (top).

Now let’s look at the part that helps transfer the load of Rubber, donut-type shock transfer is used on some Mooney aircraft (bottom).

landing and supports the aircraft’s weight on the ground.

This important job belongs to the landing gear struts, pneumatic “oleo” strut. Similar in concept to automobile which absorb the shock of everything from a greaser to a shock absorbers, oleo struts use compressed air or nitro - teeth-rattling runway strike.

gen with hydraulic fluid inside two telescoping cylinders Early designs made use of a rigid strut that was welded to absorb the landing load. This mechanism essentially directly to the airframe. While simple, the design meant transfers the kinetic energy of the hydraulic fluid being that the impact of a hard landing was transferred directly pushed through an orifice into thermal energy and can to the airframe and its occupants with only inflatable tires handle much higher loads (with less recoil) than a spring helping to cushion some of the shock load. You’ll still see steel design. Yay science! A metering pin or tube in the oleo rigid struts on helicopters, which can easily absorb the strut also adjusts the fluid flow to permit a softer initial shock from their typically low-impact landings.

compression of the strut that becomes firmer as the open - More common to GA is the spring steel strut, which is ing is further restricted.

designed to flex upward and outward and safely transfer the Many tricycle gear aircraft use an oleo strut in the nose - impact load of your aircraft during landing. They can be wheel, although it is by no means designed to bear the full designed with their namesake spring steel, or with alumi - weight of the aircraft. Its purpose is to smooth out the landing num and composite materials. You’ll see this type of main - by reducing the recoil effect of the nose during touchdown.

tenance-free strut on the majority of single-engine Cessnas.

Speaking of smooth landings, another gear variation Another common strut design uses bungee cords to with oleo struts is the trailing link gear, which uses a transfer landing loads. These elastic bungee cords are rear-facing L-shaped strut. In addition to the cushioning positioned between the airframe and the gear and must provided by the oleo strut, the L-shaped arm pivots to fur - be regularly inspected. Piper Cubs are a popular example ther help dissipate the upward energy of the touchdown.

of this strut style.

According to pilot and aviation author William Dubois, A strut design that you’ll likely see on a large transport whose Ercoupe uses this design, trailing link gear provides aircraft as well as several GA aircraft, is the shock or oleo - “buttery smooth Bob Hoover landings nearly every time.” January / February 2020 25 Dubois also appreciates the maintenance benefits, as the can easily tell if the air pressure has been consistently high oleo strut is out in the open for easy access. If you do have or low. Excessive wear in the shoulder area is an indica - oleo struts, know the acceptable static load extension of the tion of under-inflation, while wear in the center suggests strut (i.e., how much of the inner cylinder, or piston, is visi - over-inflation. Also be sure to check for cuts, cracks, bald ble during preflight). For example, the Piper Warrior should spots, and adequate tread depth.

generally have 3.25 inches of the piston showing on the Airplane brakes can help with slowing down after nose and 4.5 inches for the main gear struts. If it is below landing, as well as maneuvering and tight turns on the limits or collapsed, the strut needs servicing. Also note that ground. Most GA aircraft have disc brakes, which use fluid to compress a brake pad against a metal disc attached to the if the strut seems too bouncy, it might need some fluid. The appearance of excessive hydraulic fluid during inspection wheel. The brakes are operated with foot pedals that work independently to allow for differential braking. On every might be an indication of a leaky seal or O-ring.

preflight, be sure to look for hydraulic fluid leaks and ensure Brake It Down proper brake pad thickness. Look for excessive corrosion too, especially if it’s been some time since your last flight.

That leaves the final two parts of the landing gear: tires and brakes. Tires provide several important functions.

Getting It In Gear They support the weight of the aircraft and provide shock absorption along with traction and braking when landing. So there you have it — landing gear 101. Although your Aircraft tires are among the strongest and hardest work - undercarriage is sometimes underappreciated, hopefully ing pneumatic tires made, but proper maintenance and this primer shines some new light on this hard working inspection is essential. part of your plane.

Tires are usually constructed of rubber compound for durability. They rely on diagonal layers of rubber-coated Tom Hoffmann is the managing editor of FAA Safety Briefing. He is a commercial pilot and holds an A&P certificate.

nylon cord fabric to provide strength. Unlike automobile tires, aircraft tires are designed to flex more, sometimes twice as much. This flexing allows better traction, but it also builds up heat much faster. That’s why the hardest task

Did You Know?

for a tire is not necessarily that hard landing, but instead its ability to endure the rapid heat buildup from takeoffs and Did you know that 14 CFR part 43 Appendix A includes lengthy ground operations. The best safeguards against heat several owner-performed preventive maintenance tasks buildup include short ground rolls, slow taxi speeds, mini - related to landing gear? They include: mal braking, and proper inflation. Proper inflation assures • Removal, installation, and repair of landing gear tires the correct amount of flexing and keeps heat buildup to • Replacing elastic shock absorber cords on landing gear a minimum, increasing tire life and preventing excessive tread wear. When inspecting a tire for proper inflation, you • Servicing landing gear shock struts by adding oil, air, or both • Servicing landing gear wheel bearings, such as cleaning and greasing Before doing any of these tasks, be sure you understand all facets of the work you plan to perform, and consider any and all applicable regulations. This includes making certain you have all available tools, equipment, and test apparatus necessary, as well as reference materials or manuals. Check out this issue’s Angle of Attack department for more tips on owner-performed maintenance.

LEARN MORE FAA Airframe Handbook, Chap. 13, Aircraft Landing Gear Systems bit.ly/AircraftHandbooksChp13 A remote reservoir services both master cylinders on some independent braking systems.

26 FAA Safety Briefing

CHECKLIST SUSAN PARSON

HAND ME THE BOOK!

how electronic flight instruments If I had to point to a single FAA resource that best aligns with the display gyro instrument functions, is well worth reviewing.

“Know Your Aircraft” theme of this issue of FAA Safety Briefing magazine, Next is a discussion and helpful review of angle of attack (AOA) indi - it would have to be the agency’s 2016 edition of FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s cators, whose presence and use in GA aircraft is expanding at a rapid rate.

Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK). As with any of the FAA’s “H” Powerplants series publications, you can download PHAK Chapter 7, Aircraft Systems (PDF this one at no cost from the FAA’s download) webpage (see URL below).

This chapter of the PHAK offers a To make it easier for you to match handy review of how reciprocating some of the content in this issue of engines function, along with discussion the magazine to relevant parts of the ing gear operates. Chapter 3 reviews of everything from propellers (fixed PHAK, this column offers a guided the basics of aircraft design, certifi - pitch, constant speed, overspeed), to tour of the matching chapters. For cation, and airworthiness, along with the range of systems a good pilot ought those reading an electronic version of a description of the major aircraft to know about: induction (carburetor, this magazine, there are “VFR direct” components also discussed in some of fuel injection, turbochargers), oil, fuel, links to those chapters.

this issue’s feature articles.

ignition, engine cooling, exhaust, and Of particular interest to those flying Avionics increasingly common full authority newer aircraft models is the informa - digital engine control (FADEC) systems.

PHAK Chapter 8, Flight Instruments (PDF tion on composite aircraft construc - download) For those who operate, or aspire to tion. Important safety considerations operate, turbine-powered aircraft, this The “No Surprises” article in this issue in this area include issues such as fluid focuses on glass avionics and auto - chapter provides basic information on spills on composites and lightning types of turbine engines and consid - mation, but there are still plenty of strike protection.

airplanes around with the previously erations for flying them properly (e.g., There is, of course, much more engine pressure ratio, exhaust gas standard six-pack. If you fly such an in the PHAK. If you can’t be in your airplane, you will find that this chapter temperature, etc.).

airplane as much during these winter Given that this issue appears during starts with a comprehensive general months, this kind of review is a great review of principles of operation and the winter flying season, you might way to be sure you’re ready for spring.

function of the pitot-static instruments. also find it helpful to review PHAK For both actual and aspiring eAirplane Chapter 7 information about anti-icing Susan Parson (susan.parson@faa.gov) is editor of (aka glass cockpit) pilots, the Electronic and de-icing systems. It bears repeat - FAA Safety Briefing and a Special Assistant in the Flight Display presentation that follows ing that for GA aircraft, even systems FAA’s Flight Standards Service. She is a general avia - offers a similar description of how the certified for flight into known icing tion pilot and flight instructor.

function of legacy pitot-static instru - conditions (FIKI) are intended to ments is translated in common glass provide time for escaping such weather LEARN MORE cockpit displays. rather than for extended flight.

Next up is a discussion of gyro - FAA Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Fuselage, Empennage, Wings, Gear scopic flight instruments such as the Knowledge (PHAK) — FAA-H-8083-25B turn coordinator and attitude indica - PHAK Chapter 3 – Aircraft Construction bit.ly/2nBxvNT (PDF download) and PHAK Chapter 7, tor. For those with glass cockpits, the following discussion on the Attitude Aircraft Systems (PDF download) Airman Testing PHAK Chapters 3 and 7 look at air - bit.ly/31EMEgl and Heading Reference System (AHRS) and, again, description of craft construction and how the land - January / February 2020 27

On The Money

Getting to Know Your Airplane as an Energy System

By Juan Merkt

“Without concepts there can be no thought, and Think of the airplane as the energy bank and the pilot as the owner of the bank accounts. The pilot/owner’s job is without analogies there can be no concepts.” to manage energy transactions competently and to avoid — Douglas Hofstadter and Emmanuel Sander becoming energy bankrupt . While running out of money is a bad thing, hitting the ground if you run out of altitude hether you realized it or not, the first time you and airspeed energy could easily kill you.

increased back pressure on the elevator as you rotated the nose of your airplane for liftoff and Viewing the Airplane as an Energy System

W left the ground without assistance from your

Pilots control the airplane’s altitude and airspeed by man - instructor, you became an energy manager. Managing aging its energy state. A flying airplane is an “open” energy energy in the form of altitude and airspeed is a required system, which means that the airplane can gain energy from skill for anyone who flies an airplane. Without it, you are some source (e.g., the fuel tanks) and lose energy to the more prone to bending one accidentally and even killing environment (e.g., the surrounding air). It also means that yourself in the process.

energy can be added to or removed from the airplane’s total Learning to manage an airplane’s energy is critical for all mechanical energy — the total amount of energy stored as new pilots. The Airman Certification Standards, or ACS, altitude (potential energy) and airspeed (kinetic energy).

requires private pilot-airplane candidates to demonstrate Let’s expand the money analogy to help us understand understanding of energy management concepts. To help the airplane as an energy system. An airplane has two sav - new pilots understand these concepts and put them into ings accounts for storing mechanical energy. One account practice, I use an analogy everyone can relate to: money.

stores energy as altitude and the other one as airspeed This analogy is an excellent way to develop the correct (Figure 1). Once airborne, the airplane earns energy from mental model of the airplane as an energy system . This engine thrust ( T ), or income. It spends energy on aero - mental model will be the foundation to help you master dynamic drag ( D ), which is an expense (Figure 1). The managing your airplane’s energy safely and efficiently.

difference between energy earned and spent ( T – D ) is the net income, which determines whether total mechanical Manage Your Airplane’s Energy Wisely to Avoid Going energy — the savings — increases, decreases, or remains Bankrupt the same. At any given time, the energy state of the air - Like money, energy can be earned , spent , saved , with - plane is determined by the total amount and distribution of drawn , and even transferred from one “account” to another.

energy saved as altitude and airspeed.

28 FAA Safety Briefing slow down while maintaining altitude (Figure 2D) as energy is withdrawn out of one of the sav - ings accounts to help pay for drag. When energy gained equals that spent ( T – D = 0 ), all thrust is spent on drag. Nothing is added or removed from the savings accounts. In this case, the total amount of mechanical energy and its distribu - tion over altitude and airspeed does not change.

Both remain constant as the airplane maintains a constant altitude and airspeed (Figure 2E).

Also like money, energy can be transferred from one savings account to the other by exchanging the energy between altitude and airspeed. For exam - ple, when you trade airspeed for altitude, you will Figure 1 notice that as altitude increases, airspeed decreases.

In other words, when energy is exchanged, altitude and airspeed always change in opposite directions (absent any When energy income exceeds the amount needed to other energy or control inputs). As one goes up, the other one pay for drag ( T – D > 0 ), the pilot can deposit the surplus must come down. Also note that even though the distribution energy and save it as increased altitude or airspeed. For of energy over altitude and airspeed may change dramatically example, if the pilot decides to put all the surplus energy during energy exchange, the total amount of mechanical into the altitude account, the airplane can climb at a con - energy remains the same in the short term (Figure 2F). In the stant airspeed (Figure 2A). But if the pilot opts to place all long term, thrust would need to be adjusted to match drag as the surplus energy into the airspeed account, the airplane the latter varies with changes in airspeed.

can accelerate while maintaining altitude (Figure 2B).

When the airplane does not have enough energy income Like Managing Money, Managing Energy is a Balancing Act to pay for drag ( T – D < 0 ), then the pilot must dip into the savings accounts. For example, the pilot may choose to let Since the airplane gains energy from engine thrust ( T ) the airplane descend at a constant airspeed (Figure 2C) or and loses energy through aerodynamic drag ( D ), energy Figure 2A-F January / February 2020 29

A FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR MANAGING ENERGY STATE

To manage the airplane’s energy state, we need a frame of reference for tracking altitude and speed that is independent of varying terrain elevation and wind conditions. Luckily, we already have such a reference system. The indicated altitude displayed in the altimeter and its associated potential energy are based on the height of the airplane above a fixed reference point (mean sea level or MSL), not on the height above ground level (AGL), which changes with variations in terrain elevation. Likewise, the indicated airspeed displayed in the airspeed indicator and its associated kinetic energy are based on the speed of the airplane relative to the air, not on the speed relative to the ground below which varies with changes in wind speed and direction. This terrain/wind-independent frame of reference is essential for managing energy state, whether the airplane is maintaining a constant indicated altitude and airspeed, or whether it is climbing, descending, accelerating, or decelerating. Note that changes in indicated altitude and airspeed are attained through forces resulting from the pilot’s direct manipulation of the controls. These “internal” factors determine the airplane’s ability to climb/descend or accelerate/decelerate. In contrast, AGL-altitude and groundspeed are dependent on “external” factors, terrain elevation and wind condition, that change independent of pilot input. Of course, the pilot can manipulate the airplane’s energy in such a way as to minimize any risks associated with terrain or wind. Using the money analogy, you can think of a tailwind as a “dividend” and a headwind as a “tax” on groundspeed. Likewise, you can view descending terrain as a “dividend” and rising terrain as a “tax” on AGL-altitude. For example, the pilot may seek to manipulate energy state so as to maximize the airplane’s energy gains and minimize energy loses when faced, for example, with increasing terrain taxes.

Figure 3 flows continuously into and out of the airplane while in equation are inexorably balanced regardless of whether the flight. Usually measured as specific excess power ( P ), or airplane is accelerating, decelerating, climbing, descending, s energy rate of change, the energy flow is a direct function or maintaining constant altitude and airspeed. ( Note: This of the difference between thrust and drag ( T – D ). More simplified balance equation does not account for long-term importantly, there is a fundamental relationship between changes in total mechanical energy caused by the reduc - changes in the airplane’s total energy resulting from this tion in aircraft weight as fuel is gradually burned in flight.

energy flow on one hand, and changes in the energy stored Although the effect of weight loss on total energy becomes as altitude and airspeed on the other. This fundamental critical when solving long-term aircraft performance prob - relationship can be summarized through the airplane’s lems of range and endurance, it is negligible when consider - energy balance equation (Figure 3). ing short-term flight control problems .)

If energy were money, the left side of the energy bal - Of course, the pilot controls the change in total energy ance equation would represent the airplane’s “net income,” on the left side of the equation, as well as the distribution while the right side would reflect matching changes to the of any changes in energy over altitude and airspeed on the airplane’s “savings accounts” (Figure 3). Thus, the left side right side. How the pilot coordinates the throttle and ele - controls changes to the airplane’s total energy, while the vator to achieve and maintain desired altitude and airspeed right side regulates the distribution of the resulting change targets, as well as avoid energy “crises” and “bankruptcies,” in energy over altitude and airspeed. is at the core of energy management and would be a topic Because energy cannot be created or destroyed, a change for another time.

in total energy resulting from the difference between thrust and drag (left side) always matches the change in total Juan Merkt (merktj@erau.edu) is chair of the department of Aeronautical Science at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University in Prescott, Ariz., and he is a energy redistributed over altitude and airspeed (right side).

flight instructor. He developed and teaches a course on “ Safety Principles of Although the energy rate of change varies during flight — Aircraft Energy Management ” at Embry-Riddle.

becoming positive, negative, or zero — both sides of the 30 FAA Safety Briefing

DRONE DEBRIEF DANIELLE CORBETT

CHECK YOURSELF BEFORE YOU WRECK YOURSELF

Check3 GPS (Gear, Plan, Skills) is a Skills: Garbage in, garbage out.

quick and easy checklist that you can It’s tempting to underappreciate the use before and during flight to help skills involved in flying a drone. Many you think through all of the possible drones are marketed as “easy to fly” hazards you might face and how you’ll or “flies itself,” but no matter how handle them. The military has adopted advanced your equipment, it still this idea, which is also supported by requires a proficient person at the the Unmanned Aircraft Safety Team controls. This means that you should (UAST). In fact, it has been widely learn about and practice with your used for all sorts of activities from drone’s different functions in a safe snowboarding to free diving — and it and open area before flying in more works great for flying drones too. complicated places. It also means that Here’s how it can work for you: you should take care of yourself — be Gear: Don’t Blame the Equipment. sure to eat, sleep, and avoid medica - Some things change and some things Learn all about what your drone can tions that might affect your ability stay the same. When it comes to basic do and how it works. The best way to to make good decisions. You should things like blenders and bicycles, you do this is to read the owner’s manual always double check your plan. Many can be reasonably certain that you and talk to other people who fly the accidents and incidents result from a will be able to use even the newest same equipment. But gear isn’t just the mistaken input into a flight program.

and most technologically advanced machine. You’ll also want to routinely The difference between flying at 308 versions of these products because check that you have the most up-to- feet versus 380 feet may not seem like the concepts are relatively simple.

date software and that all of the com - a big deal … unless there’s a 310 foot However, when it comes to things ponents are in good working order. tree in your flight path.

like smart phones and drones, you’re Additionally, you’ll want to think Check3 GPS works just as well for going to be left behind if you don’t about other gear you might need for a beginners as it does for the pros. So keep up with the technology and stay given flight like glare shields, camera always Check3 before you fly.

versatile. To be more specific, when it lenses, or backup power sources.

comes to drones, you might wind up Plan: Plan your work and work your Danielle Corbett is an aviation safety inspector with losing your drone or worse, hurting the FAA’s Office of Unmanned Aircraft Systems.

plan . Good planning usually leads yourself or someone else.

to good outcomes. It always pays to It seems like everything today is think ahead about where, when, and “smart” and customizable. This fact how you’re going to execute a flight.

offers lots of options but also demands This includes things like: time of day lots of responsibility for the choices (when is sunrise/sunset?), weather we make. There is an amazing variety (is there rain or are there high winds of consumer drones on the shelves in the forecast?), location (will there today. Some are pretty basic and easy be people around or are you near to fly, while others are highly capable an airport?), airspace (do you need machines with advanced functions like an authorization?), temporary flight first person view and automated flight.

restrictions (check to make sure there It would be nearly impossible to pro - aren’t any), route (what pattern and vide a basic “how to” guide for under - LEARN MORE altitude will you use?), contingency standing and operating any drone. But, plan (what will you do if things don’t there is a simple checklist you can use go according to plan?). You can (and Check3 GPS to help guide your choices and your www.Check3GPS.com should) add appropriate consider - flight plans. It’s called “Check3 GPS.” ations to this list.

January / February 2020 31

NUTS, BOLTS, AND ELECTRONS JENNIFER CARON

REDUCING MAINTENANCE RELATED ENGINE FAILURES

What Mechanics Can Do

post-inspection performance runs.

When you look at the 1,381 fatal general aviation accidents from 2008- Per 14 CFR section 43.15, you are CHECKLISTS ARE ESSENTIAL required to run the aircraft after an 2015, 6.9-percent were attributed to engine maintenance-related failures. annual, 100-hour, or progressive TOOLS THAT CAN HELP inspection. This often overlooked This number is low, but we can do PREVENT OVERLOOKING better. Here are five best practices to area contributes to engine power loss, so be sure it is properly performed incorporate during your next inspec - PROCEDURES AND/OR tion to reduce maintenance-related to prevent any maintenance-related ITEMS OF INSPECTION.

engine power loss. It’s also very engine failures.

important to perform proper (i.e., Step 1: Research careful) leak checks. Next, make leg - the pre- and post-inspection run-up A conformity inspection is used to ible and complete record entries with checklist, the required/special inspec - determine that completed production times and/or cycles, and submit mal - tion tools, and technical data. Finally, products and related parts conform to function and defect reports. Finally, review the FAA Safety Team’s “Before the approved type design and are in a review the FAA Safety Team’s “After the Task” Checklist at bit.ly/3488mLR.

condition for safe operation. Before a the Task” Checklist at bit.ly/3488mLR.

conformity inspection is performed, Checklists are essential tools that Step 3: Conform look at the logbooks to determine can help prevent overlooking proce - Installed components must match what kind of inspection program the dures and/or items of inspection. Dou - the records and 337s, so ensure that aircraft is on. Ask the owner/operator ble-checking your work and having they’re eligible for installation and about anomalies or unusual trends. another appropriately-rated individual conform to approved data. Verify the Next, review for part and serial num - review it are also best practices.

status of ADs, weight and balance bers, total time, and time since service Remember — post maintenance records, placards, instrument mark - and overhaul. Check for installed checks are to be performed after any ings, and check for undocumented supplemental type certificates (STCs), type of maintenance and before the repairs and alterations.

major repairs, alterations, and obtain use of the aircraft. It’s an important applicable TC data sheet specifica - step to prevent engine power loss, Step 4: Perform the Inspection tions, 337s, instructions for continued determine satisfactory performance First, complete the performance runs.

airworthiness (ICA), airworthiness with the manufacturer’s requirements, Don’t overlook this step, as it pro - directives (ADs), manufacturer’s ser - make sure the aircraft operates prop - vides a baseline for comparison with vice info, and service difficulty reports. erly, and that it develops the recom - the post-inspection run. Remember, mended power after maintenance.

Step 2: Plan any inspection is a process to find You know that the pilot makes the deficiencies that need to be corrected Plan how and what you are going final airworthiness determination, prior to return to service. Next, protect to conform so as to make sure but it is your responsibility, when removed parts, comply with ADs, the inspection runs smoothly and approving for return to service, that document discrepancies, follow the efficiently in the context of other the work you have done is in an air - inspection checklist, and make sure to demands on your shop. Get the worthy condition.

account for any tools so none are left in regulatory inspection checklist, and the aircraft. Conduct a detailed work include ICAs. Remember, when flow/shift change briefing, if needed.

you’re using 14 CFR appendix D, the LEARN MORE items to be included in annual and Step 5: Return to Service 100-hour inspections may not be all Reducing Maintenance Related Engine After all required maintenance is inclusive for the aircraft you are work - Failures course (ALC-457) performed and all discrepancies are ing on. The manufacturer’s checklist is www.FAASafety.gov addressed, complete and document a good place to check items. Next, get 32 FAA Safety Briefing

ANGLE OF ATTACK TOM HOFFMANN

OWNER-PERFORMED PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

part 61 and your aircraft is not used tus necessary for any maintenance under 14 CFR parts 121, 129, or 135, task. You’ll also need all associated you may perform preventive mainte - reference materials and manuals. In nance on your own aircraft. To see a particular, 14 CFR section 43.13(a) list of the 31 items a pilot can perform states that each person performing without supervision, see Appendix A maintenance — pilot or mechanic in 14 CFR part 43 ( bit.ly/43AppA ). — is required to use “the methods, Examples include: techniques, and practices prescribed in the current manufacturer’s mainte - • Removal, installation, and repair of nance manuals … or data acceptable landing-gear tires to the Administrator.” • Replacing or cleaning spark plugs This is important; glossing over What better way to know your aircraft and setting of spark plug gap something like prescribed torque than to pull out that tool box, peel clearance values can have deadly consequences.

back those cowlings, and perform • Replacement/adjustment of non - Tighter does not always mean better!

some preventive maintenance? Pilots structural standard fasteners inci - Finally, if the job seems the least bit who perform preventive mainte - dental to operations complicated, or includes any step that nance reap the benefits of knowing is beyond your ability, put down the Before you start changing tires, be more about the inner workings of tool, step away, and seek help. Have sure you understand an often over - engines and airframes, as well as all someone who knows the task well looked detail that can affect your eligi - their associated systems and compo - walk you through the steps.

bility to perform these tasks. 14 CFR nents (many of which are discussed Performing maintenance on your section 1.1 defines preventive mainte - throughout this issue). In addition, aircraft can have several important nance as “... simple or minor preserva - AMTs can better communicate with benefits. It can save time, money, tion operations and the replacement these pilots because their improved and can open doors to a new level of small standard parts not involving technical know-how enables them to of understanding your aircraft. But complex assembly operations.” The help diagnose difficulties.

along with this new knowledge comes key word here is complex .

One of the best ways to prepare for responsibilities. With good practices, Due to differences in aircraft design your first foray into aviation mainte - the proper tools and materials, and a and accessibility of certain compo - nance is to understand the basics. This professional attitude, you’ll be sure to nents, a procedure like changing “Know Your Aircraft” issue is a start, “maintain” your way to greater safety.

an oil filter may be a simple job on but dust off those pilot handbooks some aircraft, but complex on others.

and manuals for a good refresher on Tom Hoffmann is the managing editor of FAA Safety Owners and pilots must use good aircraft engines, propellers, electrical Briefing . He is a commercial pilot and holds an A&P judgment in determining whether a systems, landing gear, and more. You certificate.

specific function appropriately quali - can also track down the maintenance fies as preventive maintenance. When manuals for your specific aircraft and LEARN MORE in doubt, talk to a mechanic.

examine diagrams and procedures in Be sure you also understand all detail. If you are changing spark plugs facets of the work you plan to per - Advisory Circular (AC) 43-12A, Preventive or oil filters, you need to understand form, along with careful attention Maintenance the systems these components impact.

bit.ly/AC43-12 to all applicable regulations. Pilots So exactly what kind of mainte - performing preventive maintenance nance can you legally perform on your FAA Safety Briefing, Mar/Apr 2010, are bound by the same regulations as aircraft? If you hold at least a private “Maintaining Your Way to Greater Safety” any certificated AMT. This includes bit.ly/2oLZoEy pilot certificate issued under Title 14 making certain you have all available Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) tools, equipment, and test appara - January / February 2020 33

VERTICALLY SPEAKING SCOTT TYRRELL

HELICOPTER PREFLIGHTS — WORTH A CLOSER LOOK

Is the helicopter preflight absolutely To further appreciate necessary? What’s the worst thing that the importance of the can happen if I skip it? I believe the preflight, reflect on the best way to answer these questions is following real world by asking why we are still having acci - example. How likely is dents and fatalities due to incomplete it that several aviation safety professionals could or omitted preflights. Unfortunately, some pilots take the approach of, “Yep leave a wrench on a rotor system? Could this hap - … it’s a helicopter. Preflight complete!” The United States Helicopter Safety pen to you? The wrench in the photo was missed Team (USHST) validated the impor - tance of the preflight in its accident on the post maintenance inspections, as well as the analysis work. The USHST is a team of industry and U.S. government par - maintenance and pilot preflights. It was flown ticipants who are driven to improve ing all the items the manufacturer U.S. civil helicopter safety. The team back to the operator’s deems important. If supplemental field before being discovered. Most has analyzed thousands of accidents equipment has been added to the over the last decade. Its most recent likely the preflight was performed helicopter, these procedures should from the ground rather than climbing work on fatal accidents from 2009 – be included on the checklist as well.

2013 found cases where the fatal out - on top of the aircraft. The preflight • Enforce a “no phone” policy during check for this particular model calls come was the result of the helicopter pilot not taking the preflight require - preflight inspections. for visual inspection of the main rotor head. This error could have easily had ment seriously. NTSB records show • Ensure pilot/pilots have adequate a similar trend. A recent query of its a tragic outcome. This is an obvious time for pre-mission planning and case of confirmation bias — you aviation accident database returned preflight inspections. Do not rush 36 events that identified errors with expect to see exactly what you have anything.

seen hundreds of times before and preflight inspection. Sadly, three of The FAA’s Helicopter Flying Hand - these accidents were fatal. The NTSB sometimes miss the obvious.

book thoroughly explains the impor - probable cause statements read, “the A few more suggestions: If you tance of conducting a preflight inspec - pilot’s inadequate preflight inspec - experience a disruption or distraction tion in Chapter 8, Ground Procedures tion that failed to detect …” These while performing your preflight, go and Flight Preparations . The added cases are serious failures within the back to the last section completed importance of a preflight is magnified aviation industry and they show how in full. Consider performing your when accomplishing a post-main - a lack of professionalism can bring preflight with your checklist in hand, tenance check flight. In these cases, harm to people and result in damage performing every item with great consider completing the preflight with to the helicopter. attention to detail. This includes a a maintenance representative. Open all Based upon this analysis, the review of the aircraft registration, panels and inspect the systems with a USHST developed Helicopter Safety airworthiness certificate, operating deliberate methodology: “See it, touch Enhancement (H‐SE) #28 called limitations (POH or placard) and it, and speak it!” Ensuring the proper “Helicopter Final Walk Around/Secu - the most current weight and balance.

torque stripes and security of all safety rity of External Cargo.” A few high - Together, these measures ensure a critical hardware should be of the lights of the H-SE: complete and quality preflight.

highest importance. A best practice is • Follow the manufacturer’s suggested to perform the maintenance preflight Scott Tyrrell is a continued operational safety spe - outline for both the inside and out - in the reverse order to help the pilot see cialist/accident investigator with the FAA’s Aircraft side inspection. This ensures check - the aircraft from a different perspective.

Certification Service.

34 FAA Safety Briefing

FLIGHT FORUM JENNIFER CARON properly preflight your aircraft after Thanks so much for the feedback. Our Here’s feedback from some maintenance. For tips, check out team cares a lot about providing useful members of our new GA our #FlySafe fact sheet at: bit.ly/ information to our fellow pilots, and it’s Safety Facebook Group!

MxPreflight. nice to know when we hit the mark!

Facebook.com/groups/GASafety Nice also to meet a fellow Gladwell Here’s a hint: if you’re a renter, and not aficionado. While we are on the subject If you’re not a member, we encour - involved in the maintenance of the air - of books, I highly recommend Mark age you to join in on the discus - craft you rent to fly (students and a large Vanhoenacker’s “Skyfaring.” It’s a sions and post relevant GA content percentage of private pilots), every pre - well-written book about the beauty of that makes the National Airspace flight should be an “advanced preflight.” aviation, and I always recommend it to System (NAS) safer.

— Ken my fellow pilots.

Exactly! Not everybody knows a good preflight.

Loving the Live When in Doubt, Rip it Out!

— Terry I just watched the latest FAA Safety Attention all balloonists — if a power Briefing Live and read the latest mag - line strike is imminent, the safest Glad for Gladwell azine. I wanted to write a quick note decision is to turn off all fuel, bleed saying thank you! It was fantastic!

Hello Susan, all remaining fuel from the lines, and I read Adam Magee’s article on “rip out” (e.g., open wide) the defla - This is to compliment you on this ballooning in the Nov/Dec 2018 issue terrific article [Uncommon Sensing] tion port. Learn more balloon safety of FAA Safety Briefing too, and I tips at: adobe.ly/32pHHZV. in the recent FAA Safety Briefing also enjoyed his article in the Sep/ Sep/Oct 2019 edition. I read it several Thank you, FAA Safety Briefing Oct 2019 issue about the dangers of times in-depth, and Mr. M. Gladwell Magazine for entrusting us to share power lines.

is a fine author, I agree. Too many ballooning knowledge in your Sep/Oct — Steve of these aspects of human everyday 2019 issue! We are proud to be a FAA norms and our behavior affect our Safety Team (FAASTeam) training Thanks for your day-brightening note.

flying skills more and the reinforce - We, along with our FAA Safety Briefing provider and representative.

ment is always necessary.

Live co-host Paul Preidecker, and — The Balloon Training Academy As an inactive flight instructor, these John Teipen the magician who makes articles all prove imperative to keep FAASB Live work, all appreciate your Always Conduct an Advanced me abreast and immersed and con - taking the time to let us know that you Preflight After Maintenance tinually learning! I hope you and the found it helpful. We also enjoy having team continue the awesome work for As the final authority for your Adam as a guest writer, and it’s good to us GA pilots out there like myself.

aircraft’s fitness for flight, it’s know that his articles are useful tools — Niven important that you know how to to help improve education amongst the lighter-than-air community.

Let us hear from you! Send your com - ments, suggestions, and questions to SafetyBriefing@faa.gov. You can also reach us on Twitter @FAASafetyBrief or on Facebook at facebook.com/FAA.

We may edit letters for style and/or length. Due to our publishing schedule, responses may not appear for several issues. While we do not print anony - mous letters, we will withhold names or send personal replies upon request.

If you have a concern with an imme - diate FAA operational issue, contact your local Flight Standards Office or air traffic facility.

January / February 2020 35

POSTFLIGHT SUSAN PARSON

WISHING WASHES OUT

Either you deal with what is the the panel weren’t getting along.

We were witnessing the squabble reality, or you can be sure that the resulting from an older autopilot reality is going to deal with you.

that simply couldn’t, or wouldn’t, — Alex Haley take instructions from the Photo courtesy of Garmin.

“But Susan, it’s not supposed to do upstart navigation newcomer.

that . It’s supposed to …” The left-seat I subsequently consulted an humans are oddly reluctant to do — pilot and owner of the airplane then FAA pilot colleague who also but probably none of us really “knew” proceeded to tell me, in impressive and happens to be an avionics engineer.

the airplane as it was now configured impassioned detail, how the autopilot He confirmed my theory that my until we had logged a few actual flying was supposed to capture the approach pilot friend’s problem was akin to the hours with the new box. I would add course set into the freshly installed issue most of us have experienced that, since a fully functional transpon - moving map navigator and track with desktop computers and other der is absolutely critical in the Wash - it smoothly down the glideslope to electronic devices: new gadgets and ington DC Special Flight Rules Area, decision altitude. He had hired me to new software don’t always work well we had ample incentive to ensure that ride along that day, first to conduct an on older platforms. The best help I we really did know how it works.

instrument proficiency check and then could offer my pilot friend was to The rationale for this issue’s know- to help figure out why the new equip - follow the advice that author Alex your-airplane focus goes way beyond ment wasn’t behaving as expected.

Haley so deftly offers in the quote new equipment, of course. We are above: Accept reality. Stop fixating all familiar with stories of pilots who on what you want it to do, or what it averted engine or electrical failures STOP FIXATING ON WHAT is “supposed” to do. Figure out what because they knew what “normal” the equipment does do on a consistent YOU WANT IT TO DO, OR indications are, monitored carefully basis and adjust your expectations and enough to spot something in the WHAT IT IS “SUPPOSED” your actions to match.

not-quite-right category and — a TO DO. FIGURE OUT WHAT Reality Rules critical step — accepted and acted on those indications. Also familiar Haley’s advice is certainly in line with THE EQUIPMENT DOES are the stories of how those critical the know-your-airplane theme of this DO ON A CONSISTENT seconds of “this-can’t-be-happening” issue, and I have shared this concept disbelief can paralyze a pilot facing with lots of “Frankenplane” owners BASIS AND ADJUST YOUR mechanical malfunction.

and pilots. As my flying club discov - EXPECTATIONS AND YOUR As Malcolm Gladwell, a favorite ered when we made a relatively simple author of mine, observes in his new upgrade a few years ago — installing ACTIONS TO MATCH.

book Talking to Strangers , humans an ADS-B transponder — the pro - have an astonishing capacity to filter cess of integrating the new item was and rationalize inconvenient facts I had been watching carefully. I had not all that simple. First, the installer so we can accept something we want no doubt the pilot was doing every - had to do some United Nations-style to believe is true. Just don’t let that thing right in terms of programming translation and mediation just to habit follow you behind the controls the equipment, which I knew well enable basic gadget communication of an airplane!

from experience in other airplanes.

and peaceful co-existence. But then But repeated approaches at the same the members of the club had to get Susan Parson (susan.parson@faa.gov) is editor of airport followed by similar attempts acquainted and comfortable with the FAA Safety Briefing and a Special Assistant in the elsewhere produced the same unde - way our new equipment performed FAA’s Flight Standards Service. She is a general avia - sired result. It was increasingly clear to old functions. It was helpful to read tion pilot and flight instructor.

me that the two electronic siblings in the instructions — something we 36 FAA Safety Briefing

FACES PAUL CIANCIOLO

DR. BRETT WYRICK

Deputy Federal Air Surgeon woman died, but he vowed from that Editor’s note: In this “know your air - craft” issue, we thought it was equally day forward to become a physician so he could help people in life-threaten - important to “know yourself” too, espe - cially when it comes to personal medical ing situations.

Two decades later, he became a issues and limitations. As the new deputy federal air surgeon, Dr. Wyrick will be trauma surgeon attending to badly injured and burned patients. How - instrumental in developing aeromedical certification policy and regulations that ever, the itch to fly and serve in the military was still there, so he joined help you determine fitness for flight.

the Air National Guard as a flight For newly appointed Deputy Fed - surgeon. While finishing his surgical eral Air Surgeon Dr. Brett Wyrick, residency in Oklahoma, Dr. Wyrick an affinity for aviation began early finally pursued his supersonic dreams notes, was an “awesome start in a won - on and was most definitely a family by flying in the backseat of F-16s, derful organization.” affair. His uncles flew wartime com - and later flying F-15s with the Hawaii Dr. Wyrick is proud that the FAA’s bat missions (one flew B-24 bombers Guard, after he opened his practice Office of Aerospace Medicine is on in WWII and another flew F-105 in Hilo, Hawaii. After several deploy - the cutting edge of human perfor - “Thuds” in Vietnam). Dr. Wyrick’s ments to Iraq, Kosovo, and Afghan - mance in aviation and space. “The father was a decorated F-100 pilot, istan, Wyrick decided to close his rest of the world looks to us and earning the Distinguished Flying practice to go on active duty with the follows our lead,” says Wyrick. “We Cross for Valor while flying 352 com - U.S. Air Force for ten years.

seek new and innovative ways to keep bat missions in Southeast Asia.

During a deployment to Afghan - pilots in the cockpit, and nothing Brett Wyrick was born and raised at istan in 2015, then Colonel Wyrick, gives us greater pleasure than helping Luke Air Force Base in Glendale, Ariz., began exploring post-military career to get someone back to flying after but moved with his family from one air options. After spotting an FAA job injury or illness.” He points to the base to another across the southwest.

vacancy for the Northwest Mountain new insulin-treated diabetes mellitus Throughout his childhood, he recalls Regional Flight Surgeon, he inter - policy as evidence of this forward the excitement of hearing constant viewed via Skype from Bagram Air thinking mentality, which leverages supersonic jet activity overhead. “I Base. His job offer came conditioned new technology and data to help remember many from the Greatest on his ability to “come home alive one more airmen qualify.

Generation who were still serving in more time.” Before he could take the “We’re still only scratching the sur - the Air Force with my Dad, as well position, Wyrick was seriously injured face,” says Wyrick. “Many good things as those of the next generation, some and had to be airlifted to Landstuhl will be coming out of the Office of of whom would fly to the moon with Military Medical Center in Germany Aerospace Medicine in the next few Project Apollo.” He dreamed of the day for surgery and treatment. The Federal years as we do our part to enhance he too would fly jets.

Air Surgeon held his new job for him safety in the National Air Space, and I That pilot career priority changed during his recovery which, as Wyrick am thrilled to be a part of it.” one fateful day at age 14. While waiting at the airport on an especially hot day for his grandparents to arrive MANY GOOD THINGS WILL BE COMING OUT OF THE OFFICE OF on a flight into Montgomery, Ala., an elderly woman standing nearby col - AEROSPACE MEDICINE IN THE NEXT FEW YEARS AS WE DO OUR lapsed by the outdoor baggage claim.

PART TO ENHANCE SAFETY IN THE NATIONAL AIR SPACE, AND I AM Brett sprang into action and began performing CPR as he was taught in THRILLED TO BE A PART OF IT.

the Boy Scouts. Unfortunately, the January / February 2020 37 U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Ave., S.W.

Washington, D.C. 20591 FORWARDING SERVICE REQUESTED Official Business Penalty for Private Use $300

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