General aviation and community development

Appendixes: Appendix A: Faculty Fellows and Associates NASAJASEE System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Appendix 6: Guest Lecturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Appendix C: Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Appendix D: Organization of the Design Tern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Appendix E: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Appendix F: Virginia Airport Data Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

LIST OF TABLES

Page Table CHAPTER l Passenger and Cargo Traffic by Transportation Mode 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Domest~c Only 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-11 1971 General Aviation Statistics 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1-111 Examples of Airport Developments 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I-IV National Airport Classif~cation System 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

I -v

Summary of Radio Navigational Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I-VI Summary of Vlsual Navigation Aids 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I-VII Commissioned FAA Facilities 44 I-VIII Rate and Rank of Total Accidents per General Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Actlvlty. 1968 52 I-IX General Aviation Percent of Accidents Which Occur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

During Different Operations 52 CHAPTER ll Federal Avlatlon Regulations for Certification As A Private Pi lot. Airplane Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chart for Estimating Response of Residential Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

from Composite Noise Rating Camparison aetween CNR and NEF Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ASDS 85db(A) Contour Tables for Selected Aircraft . . . . . . . . .

Vehicle Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Highway and Railway Capacities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Use and Consumption of Energy & Petroleum . . . . . . . . .

The Energy lntenslveness of Alternative Transport Modes . . .

Transporta!lon Stat~st~cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER Ill Demand Models Applicable to Forecasting ! . ~rport Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Based Aircraft Factor 125 Equivalent S~ngle-Engine A~rplane We~ghts 127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aviation Act~vity Variables 128-129 Ranking of Locatlon Factors in Nebraska . All Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Ranking of Location Factors in Minnesota: All Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classiflcatlon of VATS Airports 162 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virginia Communities for Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Demographic Characteristics of Upper Peninsula CHAPTER V v-l Forecasting Based Ai racraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v-ll Forecasting Airport Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 v-Ill Forecasting Revenue Passenger Miles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 v-IV Forecasting Cargo Revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 APPENDIXES F- l FAA Dimension Standards.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 F-l l Operations by Aircraft Type (Virginia, 1857 and 1968:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

LIST QF FIGURES

Page CHAPTER 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Capabilities: The Flight Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ratige-Payload Tradeoff s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50-Foot Obstacle Takeoff and Landing Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Army-NASA Experimental Research Helicopter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V/STOL Wind Tunnel Test Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

P, irport Layout Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

'2ruising Altitude Chart Isometric Diagram 9f Washington. 0.C.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Terminal Control Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Navigation System Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

General Aviation Fatalities 1960-1973 CHAPTER 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Major Aviat~or! Controls: Leg~slative and Regulatcry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Characterist~cs of Air Agencies Noise Levels for Propeller-Driven Small Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

at Maximum Continuous Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparative Fares of Intercity Public Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

U.S. Petroleum Usage (1955-1972) Tramportation Load Factors for Class 1 Intercity Garners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Direct Energy Intensiveness of Civil Aviation CHAPTER 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modes of CommunitylGeneral 4viation Decision-Making Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Preliminary Need-Determination.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Top-Down Method of Forecasting Based A~rcraft Vs . Number of Households with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Income Over $15. 000hear for Virginia Airports User Cost Vs . Number of Pouseholds w ~ t h Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Over $15.005./y ear for Virgnia A~rports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major Highway Systems in V~rginia R a ~ l Passenger and lnterc~ty Bus Services in Virginia 156 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Air Carrie; Services In Virglnla 158 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Class\ficatron of General Awation Airports in Virg~nia .I60 -161 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virginla Air Transportation System and Population Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue R~dge Air Transportation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roanoke Mun~cipal (Woodrum) A~rport 166 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. Richard E Byrd International Airport 171 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Williamsburg-Jzvestown Airport 175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The W~lliamsburg Area 177 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . City of Virginia Beach 183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAS Oceana A~rspace Ut~lization 189 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A ~ r p o r ! ~ ~n Cit~es South of Hampton Roads 194 CHAPTER 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transportation Tradeofts 224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lsolat~on Irdex 225 APPENDIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F-1 Airport Evaluation Form 249-250 ..................................................

F-2 Physic~l Facility Parameters 251 xiii FOREWORD This document summarizes the results of the 1975 NASA-ASEE Summer Faculty Program in Engineering Systems Design conducted at tne NASA-Lang~ey Research Center in Hampton, Vi:ginia during the period June 2 through August 15. The program was sponsor& jointly by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the American Society for Engineering Education throucjil a contract by NASA (NGT 47-003-028) to the Old Dominion University Research Foundation of Old Dominion University.

Included among the objectives of this program v:sre to: (1) provide a framework for communiia- tlan bnd collaboration between academic personnel, reszarch engineers, and scientists in govern- mental agencies and private industry; (2) prwide a use'l ' studv of a broadly based societal problem requiring the coordinated efforts of a multieisciplinary t a m ; and. (3) Generate participantexperience In. and foster interest toward, the development of svstems c ?sign activities and multidiscip!inary pro- grams at the participants' home Institutions.

These three objectives wee met through a study of general aviation and community develop- ment. characterized by intensive scrutiny of many ideas. philosophies, and academic perspectives on th~s multidimensiondl problem. To assure awareness and testing c! many points of view. and to achieve some convergence of best ideas. a group of 22 investigators was assembled. The design team represented 17 different colleges and universities. and 19 academic discipline~erchitectural eng~neering. aerodynamics. aeronautical engineering. air t~ansportation law, civil engineering.

community resource development. electrical engineering, enbiironment-,l law. engineerirg psy- chology, geology, industrial education, industrial e n c i n ~ r i n g . marketing. mechanical engineering.

organizational comniunication, polltical science, social thought. urban studies. and vocational educaticn Althcugh the presence of a multidisciplinary team has been essential to the success of this study, the program itself has been enhanced by guest lecturers and consulttints (see Appendixes B and C). Addit~onally. particular appreciation IS expressed for the administrative support prov~ded by the Co-Directors of the NASA-ASEE Summer Institutes. Dr. John E. Duberg of NASA-Langley. and Dr. G.L. Goglia of Old Dominion Un~versity. The assstance of Mr. John Witherspoon and FGr.

Malcolm P. Clark, both of the NASA-Langley Personnel Training and Educational Servics; Branch.

Personnel Division. was indispensable to the functioning of the program.

Mr. Joseph W. Stlckle and Mr. Alber! W. Hall of NASA-Langley served as !ec;lnical advisors to the Design Team from its inception to its conclusion. For their asslstance. the participants express appreciation.

Michael 2. Sincoff. Project Director Jarir S. Dcjani. Ass~stant Project Director August 15. 1975

aircraft flew 3.8 billion miles and carried 90

Chapter I

million people.'

General aviation provides a wide variety of

GENERAL AVIATION

functions, varying from the actual transporta- tion of wuple and goods through charter,

COMPONENTS

cargo, mail, executive transport, and air taxi operations; to sports, recreational, and instruc- tional activities. Between these two poles lie a daVinci conceived it in his early sketches.

range of industrial and community services Popov claimed to have done it first. Langley's such as aerial photography, stock-herding, effort disintegrated over the Potomac River.

fish-spotting, advertising, corpse-flying. log- And on December 17. 1903, Orville Wright ging, law enforcement. fire fighting, environ- piloted man's first successful powered flight in mental management, health care delivery.

a heavier-than-air vehicle; a flight which if un- banking, and emergency services.

dertaken today could be completed within the Table 1-1 shows the number of vehicle- fuselage of a DC-10. His short 120 foot trip miles and passenger-miles travelled by general (0.02.3 of a passenger mile) marked the begin- av~ation, in comparison to other modes of ning of rqan's conquest of the sky, and the s!art transport. Table 1-11 presents some basic of a multi-million dollar industry, which in 197'i general aviation statistics. These show that it alone resulted in 120 billion passenger-miles. It includes 98 percent of all aircraft, 60 percent of freed man from the earth and darted him on his the total number of vehicle miles and 7 percent way to the moon in less than 66 years.

of all passenger miles flown.

The aviation industry has had a tremen- This report examines the relationship be- dous influence on the American way of life: in tween general aviation and community time, in mobility, in technology, in weaving our development. The first chapter discusses social fabric. Much of its influence, neverthe- general aviation and its components. Later less, remains highly misunderstood and unex- chapters will examine the environment in which plored. Although aviation has touched the lives general aviation operates, the process of of millions of people, most of their contact with analyzing community aviation needs, and it has been either through the Ilse, or the image, selected Virginia community aviation issues.

of scheduled air carriers in operation around The final chapter is a guidebook which will the world. Air carriers, however, represent only enable community decision-makers to deter- a small proportion of the total fleet of aircraft mine whether or not a general aviation service using the airspace, and serve only a small pro- is needed and how to go about satisfying such portion of the landing facilities available needs.

around the country. Exclusive of the military, The major components of the general wia- the other side of the civilian aviation coin is tion system discussed in this chapter are (1) the known as General Aviation, and is defined in- vehicle, (2) the air support facilities, (3) airways stitutionally as incorporating all operating and avionics, and (4) human factors. These civilian aircraft other than the air carriers, components combine to produce the dynamic which are certificated by the Civil Aeronautics category of General Aviation; ever moving Board.

toward increased safety and efficiency.

Today there are approximately 3,000 aircraft beirg used by air carriers, while in ex- THE VEHICLE cess of 130,MN) make up the general aviation Introduction fleet. Of the 13,000 airports in the United States, The purpose of this section is to present an only about 500 are served by air carriers in con- overview of selected aviation vehicles. The trast to total use by general aviation vehicles.

capabilities and performance of these vehicles General aviation employs thousands of persons are first presented, followed by a discussion of in this country in a wide variety of occupations, the aerodynamics, structures and materials, including aircraft crews, direct and indirect propulsion systems, noise, and configurations ground support personnel, and manufacturers.

of fixed-wing aircraft. Finally the discussion General aviation is assuming an in- focuses on the h~story, status, and future of at- craasingly important role in the national tempts to provide vehicles capable of short- transportation picture: in 1976! general av~ation field operations. Inclusion of the final section is due to the importance of such capabilities in ' "Non-Busmess Planes Carr~ed 90 tv.'l~on.' Newpon News De~ly Press, July 25. 1975. p 42 general aviation aircraft.

PRECEDING PAGE BLANK NOT m3

TABLE 1-1

PASSENGER AND CARGO TRAFFIC BY TRANSPORTATION MODE - 1971

Dommtic Only C.rgo T M i k s x l o ' Air Carrier Water Pipeline Rail Highway Truck Bus General Aviation Auto Total 2,216,676

- -

Note: NA may mean one of the following: 1) not available 2) not applicable 3) smaller than half the statistical unit used Source: "Summary of Natio!?al Transportation Statistics," DOT-TSC-OST-73-76, Washington, D.C., Novsmber, 1973.

TABLE 1-11 1971 GENERAL AVIATION STATISTICS General Aviation Category Vehicle Vehkle-miles Houn Flown Units % Units % Units % Business 33,314 25 1,130,000,000 36 7.100,000 29 Commercial 9,327 7 510,000,000 16 3,500,000 14 Instructional 19,750 13 650,000,000 2 1 6,400,000 26 Personal 68,475 52 794,000,000 25 7,200,000 29 Other 4,282 3 60,000,000 2 ~ , O O O 2 1. Total expenditures and revenues 21.4% of all air 2. Passenger miles 7% of all air 3. Number of fatalities 87% of all air 4. Total number of vehicles 98% of all air 5. Total vshicle-miles 60% of all air Source: "Summary of National Transportation Statistics," DOT-TSC-OST-73-76, Washington, D.C., November, 1973.

The airplane has been selected as the is at its center. The dimensions of the box (ac- specific aircraft to be discussed because it has, tually a rectangular figure) are variable in- dividually with p h a e of operation ',e.g., opera- since its invention, always been the dominant vehlcle on the aviation scene, and there are no tion in a termlnal area). The important point is reliable indicators that its status will cha~ge. that the airplane interdicts a sizeable airspace Other general aviation vehicles such as heli- and ground area, and this space may be, and copters, balloons, airships, and gliders are dis- sometimes is, the same for a small airplane as cussed briefly. For definitions of these and for a large one.

other terms, see the Glossary (Appendix E).

The airplane is a moderately constrained vehicle in terms of its freedom to move in Capabilities and Performance various directions relative to its own plane of symmetry. In flight its broadest-band The airplane is a specific type of flight capabilit~es are in that plane, and are those of vehicle or aircraft, propelled through the air by steady or nearly steady movement. These a powerplant which exerts ~ t s force prepon- capabilities are known collectively as its static derantly forward. It is sustained in the air by the performance, consisting of climbs, cruise forces created by differential pressures exerted flight, and descents.

on its exposed surfaces, mainly its fixed wlngs, due to its motion through the air. Straight and Level Flight The straight and level unaccelerated flight Fcr purposes of considering its incorpora- capability of an airplane may be portrayed by a tlon into an aviation system, the airplane can be considered as an imaginary box, the c,rnen- g r a p h s h o w i n g t r u e a i r s p e e d ( n o t groundspeed) against altitude. Figure 1-1 11- sions of which portray a volume of air around it lustrates the "flight envelope." The curved line which is forbidden to other aircraft; the airplane

TRUE AIRSPEED

CAPABILITIES: THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE FIGURE 1-1 which IS satisfactory for use in flight on air- at the left represents the trend of stalling ways. Emergency descents of 1,500 feet per speed, the speed below which the airplane can- not be flown straight and level, because of in- minute or even more can be made with reasonable pitch angle changes and within ac- sufficient aerodynamic lift. The long line is the stalling speed in "clean" (gear and high-lift ceptable limits of operation, though in devices retracted) configuration; the short lines unpressurized airplanes there is risk of damage give the stalling speeds for other configura- to passengers' ears.

tions; takeoff, segmented climb, and landing.

The "best approach" angle at which land- The horizontal line at the top of the figure ing approaches may be performed is that repre- represents the maximum altitude for which the senting a power-off (engines idling) glide at an airplane is certificated. It may be well below the airspeed about 30 percent above that for stall, with flaps fully extended and landing gear absolute ceiling of the airplane since reasons down. The angle may be anywhere from about 5 such as safety in event of a window blowout or oxygen requirements may govern the choice of to 9 degrees. Steeper approaches may be the highest altitude for which certification is made, but some pilots consider that safety sought. levels are reduced at the higher angles. The "ILS landing approach" angle of 2.5 to 3 The crooked line on the right represents degrees is established by the angle that the the highest speed or Mach number in normal glide slope beam of an instrument landing flight for which the airplane is certificated. The system transmitter makes with the ground. This symbol Vmo means "maximum operating shallow angle almost always requires that velocity" and Mmo means "maximum operat- engine power or thrust be above idle setting, ing Mach number." These speeds are usually and this increases the degree of control the very close to the top speeds the airplane can at- pilot has over the glide angle (since the throttle tain, and are set by a combination of structural is a climb and descent control).

and handling-qualities requirements.

Other Changes of FligM Path Climb and Descent The airplane is an awkward machine to Generally, an airplane does not climb with- turn; i t must be turned and banked out first pitching its nose up; at its maximum simultaneously, much as a car requires banked speed it has no climb capability at all. The max- curves on roads. A conventional airplane can- imum rate of climb is generally realized at an not move directly sideways at all except by slip- airspeed about 215 of the way between stalling ping, during which altitude typically must be speed and top speed.

lost because the aerodynamic drag (rearward) The maxium angle of climb is important for force on the airplane increases, and the takeoffs and for climbs which emergency con- airplane must either slow down or descend or ditions may necessitate performing near the do both, as a consequence. The slipping ground. Thls can vary with size and type of maneuver was popular years ago as a means of aircraft, and with speed and flight configuration steepening landing approach paths, but its of a given type. Small, slow airplanes may have capability is very limited. The advent of trailing clean-configuration maximum climb angles of edge flaps in about 1940 made it largely un- perhaps 14 degrees or so; the business jets may necessary, except as an aid in making achieve 40-degree angles.

crosswind landings. Recently Interest has revived in improving the ability of the airplane An airplane may be caused to descend to move sideways, this time as a means of mak- without pitching by retarding the throttle (the ing adjustments in the lateral position of the throttle is said by some flight instructors to be final approach path relative to a landing field the basic climb-and-descent control, though runway. This ability can be important for instru- this is oversimpli3tic). Except in air-carrier ment flight operations.

operation this is not an important maneuver. A more popular descent technique is to establish In turning flight, the measure is the radius some fixed vertical speed while retaining cruis- of turn, a function both of speed and of bank ing airspeed (approximately). In the cockpit of angle. As a general rule, the radius of a turn practically all modern airplanes there is an in- may be decreased (the turn made tighter) by in- strument called a Vertical Speed Indicator, and creasing the bank angle. At a given bank angle a popular vertical speed for descents out of a slow airplane is able to turn tighter than a fast ground proximity is 500 feet per minute, a rate one, so the minimum turning radii of small for which the apparent nose-down acgle of the airplanes are generally in the hundreds of feet, cabin is not disturbing to passengers, and while those of fast airplanes such as fighters are generally thousands of feet long. Power is place, will establish whatever relationships ex- required to make a level turn, in excess of that ist between field performance and other design required to drive the airplane straight. Conse- features.

quently, as the speed of an airplane is in- Three identifiable technological levels creased toward its top speed, its ability to turn have evolved into which marketed airplanes gradually deteriorates until at top speed it can- have been divided. (1) Conventional Takeoff not make level turns at all, but must slow down and Landing (CTOL) technology is typified by to do so. Passengers will begin to take notice, simple flaps, such as appear on most general and some will be disturbed if turns are made aviation airplanes. (2) Reduced Takeoff and with bank angles more than 30 to 45 degrees.

Landing (RTOL) incorporates complex flaps Historically, there has been a fairly close and leading-edge high-lift devices called slots, relationship between the size and the maxium slats, and Krijgers, and perhaps a little powered speed of airplanes marketed successfully in the lift. (3) Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) United States. The smaller airplanes have max- airplanes use energy, in addition to that sup- imum speeds near 100 knots. As gross weight plied to ihe main propulsive means (e.g., prop) rises, maximum speed also rises, until at the to produce lift directly, through boundary layer top of the weight range for six-passenger control or lifting fans. Historically, STOL single-engine airplanes (about 3,800 pounds) airplanes have not found a market except with it is on the order of 200-220 knots. Larger the military. RTOL airplanes, slich as the Boe- ing 727, are in operation, but the only small piston-engine airplanes, the twins, are only a little faster than this, because of the airplanes in the category have beer, isolated unavailability of engines of more than about single examples because of the expense in- 350 horsepower. The turbin powered twins use volved in adopting the technology.

engines of 600 - 1,000 horsepower, and so are

Field performance data on specific considerably faster than piston twins of com- airplanes are given slsewhere, but it is instruc- parable size, with maximum spaeds on the tive to look at what corporate and utility order of 250 knots. This size-speed relationship airplane operators have considered to be ade- has not changed much in recent years.

quate field length requirements. Two surveys of such operators made some years ago, indicate The turbofan and turbojet airplanes, that all operators would be satisfied with 2,000- whatever their weights, have maximum speed foot-or-shorter field performance, but field of 350-450 knots. The lack of size-dependence length requirements of 5,000 feet or longer is due to the fact that the jet airplanes are would satisfy no one.

limited by the effects of the compressibility of air on their ability economically to achieve Range~Payload Tradeofis high-speed flight. The speeds of the jet Most airplanes, except very small ones, are airplanes are well above those of propeller weight-limited in such a way that full passen- airplanes of any size, though military propeller gers and f u l l f u ? l cannot be loaded airplanes during World War II were occa- simultaneously without exceeding the max- sionally flown straight and level at speeds just imum certificated gross weight. Figure 1-2 above 430 knots, during development pro- shows typical ranges for various types of grams.

aircraft starting with full tuel tanks. It also Little on the technological horizon has ap- shows one of the informative ways in which peared to indicate that the above relationships range-payload information can be portrayed will change much. New type piston engine graphically. The empty airplane occlrpies a development is moribund, the fuel economy of point at the origin of the graph, and eithei fuel the Wankel engine is not outstanding, and or payload must be loaded first. If, for illustra- there is a large region extending from about tive purposes, payload is considered to be Mach 0.9 to about Mach 1.5 in which efficient loaded first, the lefthand end of the top horizon- airplanes are difficult to develop.

tal line represents the airplane when loading is completed but fueling has not started; the Takeoff and Landing airplane can thus go nowhere. As fueling pro- Airplanes can be built which will take off and land in any given distance, including zero. ceeds, the capability of the airplane is indicated Takeoff and landing distances depend strongly by points on the horizontal line. Finally enough on stalling speeds, but in general, power is re- fuel has been added that the airplane is at its maximum certificated weight, and fueling must quired to fly slow, below a certain point, just as it is required to fly fast. This means that the stop whether the tanks are full or not (point A).

available technology, as well as the market If the tanks are filled before the payload is ad-

RANGE -

TYPICAL MAXIMUM RANGES (Nautical Miles)

General Aviation A i rcrafl

Light Airplanes 300 -990

Business Jets

Airliners

Trunk and International 4,000-@30

RANGE - PAYLOAD TRADEOFFS

FIGURE 1-2 ded, the airplane will be represented by points tion, with the occasiona! addition of major on the line between "Ferry" (the weight with nc jumps in tnnovatlon which nevertheless did not payload) and B (the point at which loading change the definitive outllne of the airplane it- payload must stop because the airplane has self.

again reached ~ t s certificated we~gh:). Between Aerodynamic Design A and B, fuel and payload must be traded to The general outline of the a~rplane as a set keep the gross wetght constant.

of wings with stabilizing and control surfaces was detinitive from the start. There were other concepts, but these disappeared rapidly.

The Fixed-Wing Aircraft Technologies Two changes took place within a decade after tha first flight. replacement of wing-warp- The history of the development of the ing by a~lerons. and settlement on the conclu- airplane has been that of technological evolu- sion that the tail-surface of an airplane tions of wings and bod!es, in accordance with- belonged behind it. Nothing basic has occurred the Whitcomb "transonic area rule."

since then in the area of general aerodynamic Aerodynamically, the modern airplane is configuration of small subsonic airplanes.

ar: extremely efficient device. Its propeller Combat airplanes underwent evolutionary delivers thrust horsepower at an installed effi- growth during World War I, with both sides pro- ciency, typically, of over 85 percent. The "in- ducing airframes using about the same tech- duced" drag which is an inherent theoretical nology until the Germans introduced the first penalty of the production of lift is exceeded by all-metal monoplane, near the end of the con- only about 10-15 percent in practice. The flict. General acceptance of the monoplane "parasite" drag which is the penalty for having waited until the appearance of aluminum i r ~ a useful load that occupies space, is little more than that which would be experienced by a thin sufficient quantities, and of acceptable proper- ties, made the aerodynamically superior in!er- flat plate, equal in exposed area to that of the nally braced monoplane technically feasible. In airplane's exposed skin, drawn through the air edgewise, at flight speed. This is approximately the meantime, during the decade of the twen- six times "cleaner" than a typical automobile ties, the biplane and strut-braced monoplane lived side-by-side, with no singular advance in (the above statements apply to "top-of-tho-art" aerodynamic technology. airplanes: unbraced-wing mono-planes with retractabls gear).

The next two significant improvements ap- peared almost simultaneously. The feasibility of On the low speed end of the flight envelope the airplane does not do so well. It cannot fly the internally-braced monoplar~e resulted in level at any speed below its "stalling" speed, higher wing loadings (thus higher stalling speeds) and In the Increasing significance for which can be compared roughly with the cruis- drag of items which previously were of minor ing speed of an automobi le. The safety implica- tions of having to toucn down no slower than importance. Flaps and retractable landing gear this are obvious and efforts to improve the appeared almost together, to make significant situation have been continual. The market extensions to both ends of the speed range.

The fighters of World War I could fly a little over place typically has called for speed and effi- ciency, however, and has accepted the risks of twice as fast as their stalling speeds; by the fast touchdowns.

1930's "twice as fast" had become "over three times as fast."

Indeed, striving for very low stalling speeds can be more dangerous than not. The At that point the major contriSut;ons to low reason lies in the fact that the aerodynamic subsonic aerodynamic art ceased. Slnce then force that a control surface (e.g., rudder) can there have been detail improvementsshaping exert, is proportional to the square of the speed refinements in ailerons, flaps. slats, airscoops, with whlch it moves through the air. So an and so on.

airplane configured for low speed handling can General aviation includes high-subsonic be oversensitive at high speeds 3r one con- airplanes, so the two most significant technical figured for high speeds too sluggish at low.

contributions to flight in the Mach-number Conventional general aviatlon airplanes of range from 0.6 to 0.9 should be ment~oned. The small-to-medium size are typically acceptable first of these was acc~dental. During the mid- on both ends of the speed range. One of the thirties specially shaped families of airfoils ways In which power requlred for cruise flight were developed in an attempt to reduce wing can be reduced. however, is by reducing wing skin-friction drag. Success in doing this was areas. The higher stallir~g spwds whlch result negligible for various reasons. Of interest, are undesirable, but can be lowered by increas- however, was the fact that the speclal airfoils ing the maxlmum wing lift capability. Thus the had better high Mach characteristics than their energy cris~s helps keep the pressure on for predecessors. Maximum opevating Mach num- fur!her development of high lift devices.

ber gains of more than 0.1, or about 15 percent.

were possible. The second development,that of Airfoil Development "Airfoil" refers to the shape and thickness the swept wing, wes German, and was not of a cross-section of a wing. Three forwclrd known to the United States until the collapse of Germany in 1945. High-subsonic airplane aero- surges in airfoil development can be identified.

dynamic deslgn coasted along on the strength First, the NACA low-speed programs of the 1920's and 1930's which resulted in the four and of these two developments untll the late 1950's.

whe.1 Boeing commenced utilizing a further five-d~git airfoil seric; (each digit of a designa- refined airfoil series and tailoring near the junc- tlon such as 2412 gives the magnitude of an air-

TABLE 1-111

EXAMPLES OF AIRFOIL DEVELOPMENTS

Romrrk8 Airtoll Cdigit mries NACA 24XX 5-dig~t series NACA 230XX (1 930's) " Larn~ner-tlow" NACA 63-4XX airfoi Is 4-digit airfoil with -- 2.0 NACA 6716 (1974) high-loaded trailing edge "Low-speed super- critical" thick air- foil Lift (Dynamic pressure) (Area) foil shape parameter). The entire series used a The gains being sought aro relatively type of thickness function based on only 2 air- small, and the cost of obtaining them %me- foils: one designed by Col. Virginius €. Clark, times seems excessive. Table 1-111 illustratesthe and one very similar designed at Gottingen.

evolution of high-lift airfoil technology. The The mathematical difinitions of thickness func- data are clouded by the fact that the later ex- tions and mean lines were sys:ematized, but not plorations have emphasized low test speeds.

on a theoretical physical base--!hey were ar- There has been much attenti011 devoted to bitrary, as were the Clark and Gottingen airfoils raising the maximum lift capabilities of airfoil that served as the point of departure.

sections. This has taken the forms ~f (1) devis- Second, the so-called "laminar flow" ing basic sections with high maximum lifts, and series, which as it turned out offered more to (2) dtwising slat and flap configurations to ap- high-Mach flight than to low. There were ply to these sections to produce high maximum several families of these, of which the survivors lifts in landing configuratioas (flap down, slat are the so-called "6" and "6A" series. Airfoil out).

contours were developed to match desired sur- Some of the recently-developed basic sec- face velocity dis!ribution.

tions have had lower drag at high lift than have Third, various programs seeking further older sections of the same thickness ratio relief from high-subsonic-Mach number limita- (thickness ratio is important because it indi- tions of thick airfoils developed. The names cates the depth of wing availabls for structure connected with these programs are Sinnott and and tankage). A conventionally corlfigured Pearcy in England, and 'Whitcomb in the United small airplane may be said to have "toc much" States.

wing for economical cruise, since the wing size Current work in the United States is of is determined by the requirement for low stall- three kinds: (1) theoretical and experimental ing speeds. The bensrit sought through use of work on multi-element (f:apped and slatted) air- the newer airloil sections is in that they allow foils; (2) theoretical and experimental work on smaller wings than usual, since their maxium high-lift basic airfoils, notable among which is lift capability is hiah. In climb and at cruise, the the GA(W) airfoil series to which Whitcomb's small wing omrates at higher lift per unit area, name has literally become attached; and, (3) and the shih: of maximum weightldrag ratios to continued wark on the "supercljtical" ;lasses higher lift values is therefore favorable to the new sections.

of airfoi Is.

The clas3ic approach to configuring multi- Second, in ona or two cases of note, element wings for takeof!, approach, and land- sopnisticated techn1que.i have produced solu- ing has been to start with a given basic airfoil, tions for airfoil shapes which obviously wwe no lay in flap and slat elements that will fit inside good, but were carried through wind tunnel the airfoil contour, and then explore what the tests despite the clarity with wnich the !ow settings of these elements should be for lift merits of the selections could be deduced from rnaximiz~tion. Powover, an airfoil designed for visual inspection of the airfoil contours.

high lifting capability with no flap will not Third, the orr~ibsions in the experimental necessarily be exceptionally good when a flap data provided for families of existing NACA air- system is added. This suggests that multi-ele- foils have been known to the industry for years.

ment airfoil research might be directed toward In some cases, filling in the data gaps and ex- finding airfoil sections and flap configurations tending the ranges of parameters in directions that are best when the flaps are down.

whose utility could easl ly be perceived, would have provided section geometries wh.ch are Most of the multi-element airfoil develop- ments of the past have been addrsssed to the only now being explored (an instance is the landing configuration, where flap deflections general correspondence betweel; th9 charac- are larg6 and maximum lifts high. The most teristics of the NACA 6716 section, only re- cently tested.$ and thcse of the GA(W)-1 sec- troublesome flight configuration remaining is that for climb, in particular the engine-out tions). In one notable case, that of the NACA c l i n h of twin-engine airplanes. Feder~l Avia- 230XX airfoils, a family c' sections with ob-

tion Regulatincs acknowledge the importance viously superior hlgh lie characteristics sat

atound for years, figuratively screaming for of climb performance by prescribing mi:iimum values of climb grse;;ents or rates, but implicitly more inquiry into just why they were so good.

acknowledge that trouble ex ats by setting the To many people there were good and suffi- minimum values very low.2 Gzvslopment of air- cient reasons for tt:a lack of attention to the foil systems tailoisd for the c l i ~ : ~ ; ~ regimes have

data gaps - World War II, the postwar funding

received little attfmtion.

crunch, the advent 3f diverting work (super- sonic flight, missiles, space programs). During Directions for Airfoil Research those periods, understandably, relatively little With the advent of automatic computation, work was done by NASA; general aviation it became possible to conduct theoretical ex- manufacturers took occasion to point out the plorations of airfoil characteristics which pre- lack; the larger alrplane companies such as viously tiad been too burder~some to undertake.

Douglas ar,d Boeing urldertook 10 remedy the The cllrrsnt nnalytical programs for single- and situation for their own benefit in their own multi . ,- 3nt airfoil shaping are cn facilities, and very little appeared in the public I Y ,d seem useful to apply such pro- domain.

gram, , tne problem of developing airroil and It ts suggested that benefit to general avia- flap systems together rather than separately, tion would result from a co~tinuing, long-range with specific appl~cation to climb performance.

program cf subsonic aercidynamic research While the& programs have merit, the which would include: following should be pointed out: (1) increased financial support for First, far cruder analyses, applied sensibly, NASA aeronautics research, to have provided important indications of what the ei:snt that not only could should be done to moke given modifications in NASA's cwn in-house and ,:on- airfoil characlsristics.

tractual research be augmented, but also close and coctinual technical monitoring could be I Federal Av~at~on .Tegulat~ons. Part 23. Par 23 65 el seo maintained over the manner in ' Hlcks. Raymond M , et e l , An Assessment ol Alrlo~l which governmenr: funds in Des~gn by Numer~cal Opt~m~zat~on." NASA 'TM X-3092 July. I974 general use are spent for aero- ' Barger. Raymond L and Brooks. Cuyler W Jr "A Streamline Curvature Method for Des~gn ot Supercrttlcal and nautical research.

Subcrltlcal Alrfo~ls." NASA TN 0.7770 September. 1974 (2) continuous liaison with univer- ' Blngham. Gene J . 'Low-speed Aerodynan~c Charac- ter~rtlcs of NACA 6716 and NACA 4.416 Alrlo~ls w~th 35-percent sities and with general aviation Clicrd Slngle Slotted Flaps." NASA TM X.2623. May 1974 manufacturers, using circuit.

' McG'ree. Robert J . ard Beasley. W ~ ! i ~ a m D "Low-Speed riders i f necessary, to determine A-rodynam~c Characterlstlcs of a 17-Percent Thlck A~rfo~l Secl~on in what ways NASA or cther Des~gned lor General Av~al~on Appl~cnt~ons. NASA TN-07428.

December. 197 7 govorcment agencier can be responsive to their research with low weights and low-strength materials needs. Coverage should not be dictated the use of wire-braced, thin-membered limitedto those of the public who trusses: the bridge-type fuselags framework have government contracb. A and the biplane wing celluk, which was essen- mechanism t o ensure the tially a repetition of the fuselage truss, disposed responsivness of the govern- laterally and with its horizontal panels covered ment agencies should be by secondary structure, the ribs and fabric en- devised. velopes. Some all-wood airplanes, their sur- faces made of spruce plywood bonded with ca- (3) "gap-filling" experirnen~al work.

sein glues, appeared during the war and The everyday problems of the throughout the 1920's. but they did not account small or medium-sized airplane for a major market share. Wooden airliners company are not those of push- were killed abruptly following the Knute i n g o u t t h e f o r e f r o n t of Rockne crash; the Fokker transport in which he knowledge. but rather are tho..

was killed was wooden-winged, aod the crash of obtaining detailed information was felt possibly due to the deterioration of the on items basically already well wing structure.

within the state of present art- such items as airfoil charac- Subsequently, wood for airliners was, in effect, regulated out of use, and the develop teristics, aerodynamics of ment of light-metal technohgy was thereby fuselage irregularities, inter- forced. Though unbraced-wooden-winged ference drag, engine cooling airplanes were bui It (Lockheed Vega, Fairchild drag, propeller performance, ex- PT-19), the development of light--metaltech- crescence drag, etc.

nology probably was a major factor in promot- (4) continued publication of com- ing aerodynamic improvements starting with pendia of data, of a higli order of the unbraced (internally braced wing. Cne completerless, with periodic might almost say it forced the aerodynamic revisions and reissues.

refinement, since duplicating w m o n struc- (5) revival of the pre-1958 NACA in- tural configurations typically leads to some dex sjstem. The current STAR weight increase, which must be offset by drag indexes are comprehensive, but decrease if installedengine power is not to ri.-e.

need supplementing to i. , , The 1930's were a period, then, of refine- the visibility of important NASA ment in all-metal design, culminating in the work. The old NACA index for- great combat air fleets of World War li.

mat was excellent in :his ragard, Immediate postwar developments included and far more usable than the the introduction of "sandwich" materials (a STAR indexes.

double skin of very thir layers prevec:ed from Elements of this program exist; some have buckling due to in-plane compressive loads by existed for a long time. The intent of the above a lightweight core of wood or metal suggestions is to express general concurrence honeycomb). but the impact of thls technology with the decisions which have produced the on general aviation has not been felt until re- present NASA general aviation aerodynamics cently. The delay was du2 in part to the programs, while citing areas in which addl- difficulty of inspecting sandwich structure tional funding seems desirable.

bonding using nondestructive techniques. a difficulty not surmounted until a very few years Structures and Materials ago.

Structural development h a beer1 paced historically by materials availability. The best The war product~on programs enabled utilizable weightistrengtti ratios in the pre- scme general aviation manufacturers to World War I period were possessed by various develop their all-metal technology at public ex- wocds (the u s of weightistrength ratio is a vast pense. The result was that production of oversimplification, which is why the word wooden, fabric-covered. general aviation "utilizable" has been inserted). Wrought airplanes rapidly subsidea after the war until at aluminum alloys were ?ot available ic temper present only a few mlt- ~r types are bemg pro- states that allowed use in primary structure, duced.

though secondary structure could use ~ t , and Sheet-me a! !ecbr !ogy of World War II did during the war.

level still dc .ninates rhe civil a1:plane field.

The necessity for building stiff structures Early attemp's tr* us.? plastics technology for secondary structures resulted in saving neither the requirements for structural strength, effi- weight nor cost. More recently a second cycle ciency, and low maintenenace. Wood, of attempts to use plastics technology was however, continues to be an acceptable begun. One certificated civil airplane, the Win- material for the construction of small airplanes.

decker Eagle, uses plastics almost altogether Fabric is a sort of natural companion of wood for skin. but the extent of plastics use in its pri- for this applicat~on. so along with thd program mary structure i s apparently lower. Other of resumed development of wood construction manufacturers have acquired or are acquiring technology which is suggested here, might well the capability to work major structural compo- go one of fabric application development.

nents in plastics.

The bugbears of the past have been: (1) in- sidious. invisible deterioration of the mechani- Military structural research has concen- trated most recently on the development of cal properties of wood structures; (2) non- destructive inspection of woods; (3) rot and in- composite structure with mono-filament load- festation; (4) deterioration of fabrics with ex- bearing members. This development has not yet reached the civil field. posuie i t sur. (hence pigmented dopes replac- ing the clear dopes of the first two decades of Sail plane structure has resched a new aviation); (5) palatability to field creatures of plateau with the replacement of composite cordage used in stitching; (6) resistance to ac- wood-and-fabric constn!ction by conventional tion of aviation fuels and lubricants; and. (7) fiberglasslepoxy layups aith foam filling. This bonding materials and techciques.

enables glassy-smooth exterior skin-surfacs Recent years have seen the introduction of to be built fairly easily.

synthetic aircraft cloths and long-life dopes.

Perhaps the most active area of structures which it is hoped will give finished fabric r e s e a r c u t least th& most visible at the mo- airplane coverings lifetime durability. However.

ment-is the analytical. The fairly simple sheet- work toward improving the characteristics of metal structure of 'No, Id War II could be stress- aircraft covering using renewable resources analyzed using closed-form methods. Very may yet be in order. This same constraint thick-walled structures such as landing gear should be considered for application to forgings could not be well dealt with using such resexch in any of the other areas.

simple methods, however. The availability of digital computer time has resulted in an explo- Propulsion sion of finiteelement methods for the analysis Propeller airplanes represent an over- of thick-walled structures of complex shape.

whelming percentage of the general aviation fleet, so perhaps starting with the propeller it- At the time of the disappearance of the wooden airliner, the technology of wooden self is appropriate.

airplane construction was fairly advanced.

Someone has said that only a real genius Throughout the years between then and 1941.

could design a poor propeller. Operating at its wooden airplane development struggled along, design point a typical wooden fixed-pitch pro- and it is now the property of sport aviation and peller of World War I vil age would show effi- one commercial manufacturer. The state of the ciencies in excess of ; 3 percent, and modern technology is practically the same as at the end techn3logy metal propellers can exceed 90 per- of the last major wooden airplane production, cent. Thus, aerodynamic refinements for tke Pi-19, left it.

design-condition operation yielded relatively small gains, the largest being experienced It would appear that there is riow reason for when aluminum technology permitted develop- taking it up again. While the state of availability ment of metal blades in the late 1920's.

of the major civil aircraft structural materials of the preserlt day-aluminum, magnesium, and The only major avenue of improvement, titanium-is better than that of petroleum fuels. then, was in the ~ r e a of off-designperformance.

still the refinement of these materials to aircraft and this problem was addressed in the early standards is energy intensive. In this regard 192C's, with controllable-pltch and constant- wood is attractive-a renewable resource, po- engine-speed propellers finally achieving wide tentially available in adequate supply to suppol: yse by the mid 1930's. The propeller technology small airframe production, and with small of general aviation tnda) is largely the tech- energy requirements to prepare ~t for aircraft rlology of that era, with detail refinements.

use.

Pract~cal piston engine development was Larger airplanes will u~doubtedly continue along two lines-aircooled and liquid-cooled.

to be built of more exotic materials because of Llquid-cooled engines are no longer used ex- cept for the World War Il :eftovers. and are not detail refinements, such as the introduct~on of produced at all. Aircooled engines got a rather fuel injection and turbo supercharging, both strange start with the "rotary" engine. whose spinoffs from military aviation. Minor types =J crankshaft was rigidly fixed to the airframe, the freaks have appeared now and then. such as pistons. cylinders, crankcase. and propeller all the Gui berson diesel radial, the six-cylinder whirling around at prop speed, which was then Curtiss radial (single-row radials have odd (WorldWar I) rather low. The rotary died a well- numbers of cylinders, so the Curtiss engine deserved sudden death after the war, its place was in essence two three-cylinder radials with a taken by the aircooled radial.

common crankcase), and the Herrmann cam engine.

The present horizontally-opposed con- figuration found in most general aviation Propulsion research has produced many airplanes dates back to the late 1920's: it and exotic configurations during the last twenty tne prevalent "lightplane" highwing configura- years-lift fans, tilting rotors. tilt-props, tilt- tion started together at thht time. a i d the family prop-tilt wings, tilting ducted fans. and so on.

resemblance remains until now. Improvements The main thrust h s been toward development since the 1920's have been in materials and of VTOL types other thar: the helicopter. With a NOW-

\ ( cERTIFK;Lfm) -

/IT'S LESS \ \ . / IT'S \

single military exception, these devices have large, is a far less noisy device at the distances not been undertaken by any firm for production, at which it is typically encountered than is a although the present state ot documentation power lawnmover, a motorcycle or a "perfor- seems fairly good. Much of the information has mance" car. Experience has shown, however, been condensed into a reference work by Dr. that the airpicine's high visibility makes it Barnes W. McCormick of Pennsylvania State vulnerable, and that noise levels at major air-

University. ' Dr. McCormick has broadened the

ports generate an awareness of aircraft noise scope of his work to include powered boundary that "wipes off" on all airplanes. Also, an ob- layer control. essentially a part of STOL tech- jectionable noise need not be "loud." or have nology which also has found, to date, only mili- any specific frequency content, to generate tary applications.

complaints. There is experience to indicate that many complaints about "noise" are generated Piston engine development has simply in- simply by newness and unusualness. It all corporated old military engine technology into amounts to the fact that silencing airplanes is a civil engines, with one notable exception: response to a political fact of life, however ar- Teledyne Continental has produced an engine tificially generated, which did not exist as such with an altered internal power train and fairly years ago, but which we now ignore at our peril.

sophisticated dynamic damping devices.

Small piston engines are muffled, but not Dowty-Rotol has displayed a controllable- as effectively as automobile engines. There are pitch piston enginelshrouded propeller com- two probable reasons: (1) avery significant pro- bination in mockup form.

portion of the noise of an aircraft power plant is Turbine engine development in small sizes propeller noise--perhaps as much as 40 to 60 has utilized essentially military-funded tech- percent. The propeller noise therefore masks nology for civil engines of fairly conventional the exhaust noise at high prop speeds; and (2) form. Short-life turbine engines, based on weight is always critical, and the tendency is droneengine technology, have been proposed therefore to minimize the weight. as a percen- at various times as lift engiries (axis vertical) for tage of the total, of items that do not contribute STOL or VSTOL airplanes, but none has been to safety of flight or to sales potential.

adopted for production. Turbine engine tech- Propdler noise is predominantly due to air nology is very expensive to acquire, hence the compressibility effects at the blade tips. To get lack of civil funding for advanced research.

rid of the noise, then, demands that either the No engine produced to date for aviation, propeller be slowed to a tip speed where these excepr the diesel, has outshone the conven- effects will disappear (usually below Ms0.6) or tional gasoline piston engine from the stand- that blade profiles be reshaped. The "high- point of fuel economy. The shaft-gas-turbine speed supercritical" airfoils proposed by Dr.

enginc is lighter and its overhaul times typically Richard T. Whitcomb are designed for the longer; through intensive development its fuel specific purpose of delaying the onset of com- consumpt~cn has been hammered down to

pressibi lily effects by approximately .05 - 0.10

about the leve! of the wartime piston engine.

Mach. Along with this benefit go increases in Nevertheless, with little development since the loadings at which it is acceptable to drive 1945 except what the civil engine manufac- the blades, from a power-required standpoint .

turers could afford, the fuel consumption of the gasoline piston engine is now, after thirty years. Low tip speeds dictate increases in pro- about as far superior to that of the turbine as it peller "solidity" (number and width of blades) was when gas turbine development started, on to realize acceptable thrust power levels. Since a percentage basis.

thrust not only varies almost directly with solidity, but also with the square of propeller As long as flight speeds are below about speed, ground and low-speed engine cooling 325 knots, the propeller engine is superior to becomes a problem with slow turning pro- the only other two types in use. the turbofan and pellers, as was again demonstrated with the the turbojet. This superiority exists because of "spook" airplanes used in Vietnam.

propeller, rather than engine, characteristics.

The implication of this and the superior fuel Some persons have proposed L;se of economy of the basic piston engine is clear.

shrouded propellers to diminish noise output.

There is no present evidence to indicate that Noise the complicated tradeoffs involved in shrouded The general aviation airplane, taken by and propeller design will favor low-noise configura- - - -- tions of acceptable weight and efficiency. In- ' McCorm~ck. Barnes W Aerodyn~mrcsof V/STOL Flrght (New vork Academ~c Press. 1967) deed, the basic configuration generates noise machines in the air. This characteristic is the problems all its own at the low-loading end of the range of applicability. At the high end, the difficulty of "cleaning it up" after a single shrouded propeller becomes the secondary engine failure. The pilot must sort out which engine failed, shut it down, at the same time stage of the ducted fan engine. Here the trade- offs are considered vis-a-vis the turbojet conteracting the roll and yaw occasioned by engine, and are favorable to the fan because of the shutdown, then rapidly retract the gear and raise the flaps if they are extended. The its long shroud (not feasible at low loadings), difficulty of doing this is emphasized by the fact which can be acoustically treated.

that a large propocion of fatal accidents to It is surprisingly little understood that smsll twin-engined airplanes in which engine stop- propeller airplanes can now be silenced almost page played a part is sustained in training for to the lwel of the automobile at high speed engine failure emergencies.

cruise. Detail changes of configuration which must be made to do so include: (1) more effec- Attempts have been made to circumvent tive exhaust muffling; (2) overwing routing of the trouble by designing airplanes with "cen- exhaust stacks: (3) slow turning, wind bladed terline thrust," e.g., the "push-pull" Cessna propellers; and. (4) improvements in grol~nd 337. Such airplanes have their own problems, and low-speed cooling, perhaps with auxiliary notably those of detecting when an aft engine blowers or a reversion to liquid cooling. But the failure has occurred, and of providing adequate job can be done with111 the limits of present ground cooling for the aft engine. The cancept technology. An inspectionof the circumstances remains attractive, however, as a remedy for the surrounding the addition of noise certification basic problem, and if the conventional win requirements to the Federal Aviation Regula- cannot be rendered more tractable by the ep- tions would seem to be in order, to determine plication of advanced technology, the cen- whether. for any small airplane other than the terline thrust twin should be taken in hand and business jets, 2 real need exists for the regula- developed to the extent that it possesses less tions.

serious problems of its own than are possessed The changes listed above do not come by the conventional type.

. .

free. Each hasits cost in weight or efficiency, The Advanced Technology LigM Twin small though it may be. Whether this cost wi!!

(ATLIT). For several years a group under Dr.

be tolerable as fuel supplies grow scarcer can- David Kohlman and Dr. Jan Roskam has been not be predicted, but it is worth considering working at the University of Kansas in the area whether significant amounts of funds should be of the improvement of cruise and low speed spent on developing improvements which may performance of ?mall airplanes. The general in a very few years have to be discarded as the approach is to adopt high-lift airfoil technology last few percentage points of efficiency are to maintain low stalling speeds while improving sought.

cruise performance (range) and gust response by reducing wing area about 30 percent to cut Basic Configuration skin-friction-type parasite drag. Spoiler As pointed out previously, no definitive ailerons are adopted to maintain good roll per- changes in airplane configuration have taken formance at low speed.

place since aboct World War I. That war also generated the basic conventional twin, with At present this NASA-contracted program wing-mounted tractor-type powerplants, a type has modified a Piper airplane, an "ATLIT," for which survives and is popular today.

further experimental work. Their first airplane was a single-engined Cessna.

The conventional light twin represents the first step up in performance from the heavy Robertson Aircraft. While the aerodynamic single, largely due to the fact that there are no gains sought by the ATLlT project are worth engines on the market today in the 600 horse- achieving, quite a bit can be done toward im- power class except the Pratt and Whitney PT-6 provement of low-speed performance alone by turbine and the R-1340. Neither of these adopting less drastic measures. For many years engines is suitable for other than specialized the Robertson Aircraft Company has single-engine applications, the turbine specialized in modifying conventional produc- because of its cost, the R-1340 because of its tion airplanes for this purpose. The modifica- limited availabiiity. The twins, with their modern tions consist of sophisticated flap systems, opposed engines, fill the gap.

drooped-wing leading edges, vortex genera- The conventional twin as a type, unfor- tors, and lately full-span flaps and spoilers.

tunately. has one bad characteristic, which ren- Robertson's emphasis has been on keeping ders i t among the most potentially dangerous modification costs low and doing as little as possible that will affect the structural integrity down of the various field length performilnce of the basic airplane. targets advocated throughout the years, with a little information on each: Short Field Aircraft 1952: 500 feet; this was the point of (1) "Short-field Aircraft" is a catchall term departure for many discussions under which can be lumped all aircraft which among commercial manufacturers, use advanced technology to achieve shorter the Army, and the Office of Naval than ordinary takeoff and landing distances.

Research. In 1953, the Cessrla The term embraces short takeoff (STOL), Aircraft Company actually pro- reduced takeoff (RTOL). and vertical-or-short duced an airplane capable of tak- takeoff (V/STOL) types of machines.

ing off and landing over a 50-foot obstacle in 450 feet. The airplane RTOL and STOL was a heavily-modified L-19A. The There have been two definitions associ- "improvement" over CTOL was ap- ated with each of the names Reduced Takeoff proximately 25 percent.

and Landing (RTOL) and Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL), and much confusion has ex- 1959: 1,200-2,000 feet, developed in (2) isted because this fact was not appreciated.

part by technical studies growing The confusion existed because, while Conven- f r o m O N R t A r m y - s p o n s o r e d tional Takeoff and Landing (CTOL) airplane research performed at the Univer- technology and its associated performance sity of Wichita. The aircraft associ- were representedby existing types of airplanes, ated with these field lengths were as was VerticalIShort Takeoff and Landing

transports in the 30,000 - 60.000

(V/STOL) by the performance of the helicopter, pound class At this same time, no hardware and no steady performance Lockheed Aircraft started develop- targets existed for STOL. During the early years ment of a "BLC-130" with com- in the development of STOL technology, the parable performance.

typical argument was over what single fixed 1968: 1.000 feet. The FAA marked (3) takeoff and landing distances should be striven off 1,000-foot sections of runway at for through the application of the technology.

Washington National, Friendship, One of the early "definitions" of STOL was and LaGuardia airports and desig- "500 feet over a 50 foot obstacle." It was nated these as "STOL" strips. An surprisingly long in coming out that there were airline using Dornier "Sky Servant" actually two entities to define separately.

heavy twins (7,700 pounds) used The first was STOL technology, the ag- these strips. Though this airline gregation of technical developments that would operated only for a while, it pro- enable the design of an airplane with field vided information on tbe feasibility length requirements substantially less than of introducing STOL airplanes into those of a CTOL airplane, of the same payload, the mix of traffic at a heavily-used range, and speed.

airport.

The second was STOL airplane, and to its 1970: 2,000 feet. This was a relaxa- (4) definition no fixed field performance require- tion of the 1,000-foot "requirement" ment could be attached except arbitrarily. 5 ne above. Surveys of the larger com- field performance of successful airplanes muter operators at that time indi- designed to a given state of the art is size de- cated that they would have been pendent as shown in Figure 1-3. A STOL content with about 3,500-foot field airplane, then, is an airplane which utilized performance.

STOL technology effectively to produce some percentage improvement in performance, no 1975: 3,000-4,000 feet. This length (5) matter how short or long its field requirement is.

is associated with medium weight transport category airplanes Potential users, however, insist on thinking (146.000-206.000 pounds) in a in dimensional terms so here is a sample run- NASA-funded set of short-haul systems studies by Douglas, * Stalter. J L . and Wanson. Robert K . Jr . "Experimental In- vestlgatlon of a Means of Obtaln~ng Independent Control of Lift and Lockheed, Boeing, and others. Ad- Drag In Land~ng Approach." Unlverslty of Wlchlta Englneerlng Re- vanced ni-lift technology and port UWER-3155. Contract DA 44-177-TC-356. U.S Army Transpor- tatlon Research Command. April. 1959 materials were necessary at these

C I V I L AIRPLANES UP TO 34,000 POUNDS

CTOL STOL, RTOL

+ Landing Landing

I I I 8 I . 1

1 5 10 15 20 25 30

X 100=TAKEOFF AND LANDING DISTANCES I N FEFT

SO-FOOT OBSTACLE TAKEOFF AND LANDING DISTANCES FIGURE 1 3 weights. Environmental considera- tions from short fields or aircraft carriers, tions were invoked. thought in terms of better field performance thancould be displayed even by the propeller From these cases it can be seen that the airplanes of the period. They were diverted from field length requirements, and the aircraft mis- the helicopter by its slowness and fearsome sions and sizes of principal interest at the mo- maintenance costs, and thought instead of ment, wers all mixed up together, which tre- short-field fixed-wing airplanes which, while quently happens when most of the application somewhat heavier and more complicated than effort over a considerable period is devoted to conventional airplanes, would offer acceptable studies rather than to the production and logistics and some of the desired performance marketing of actual equipment.

gains.

To try to make sqme sense of the above, a Conventional high-lift technology seemed discussion of STOL aircraft is presented using to have reached a plateau, so attention was a historicalltechnical approach. The initial directed towards "powered lift." The means question, of course, is "what is 'short'?" or were to be propellers which bathed most of the "short with respect to what?" As has been wing in their slipstreams and could be used in seen, there is no way to answer using field conjunction with very sophisticated wing flaps lengths; thus, a defimrion based rather on the and drooped airlerons which deflected the state of the technical art must be adopted. This slipstreams downward to obtain additional lift.

definition requires that a technology associated Further, an old concept called "boundary layer with "conventional" is adopted first, and that control" (BLC) or "circulation control" was in- "short" (plus recently "reduced") be related to voked to increase the maximum lift of the flap- it through inspectionof the techiological levels ped wings. The application of BLC delays the habitually associated with them.

breakaway of the airstream over a wing by Conventional Technology. Perhaps the removing (suctiun) or re-energizing (blowing) &st period to use to describe "conventional" the slow-moving layer of air-the bolir ~dary is the period between 1946 and 1950. By 1946 layer--close to the wing surface, the decay of the biplane and the wooden airplane no longer which causes the wing to stall.

represented the highest level of technology.

Under Army, Navy, and Air Force sponsor- The technical product of the war years which ship, exploratory programs on prototype ver- appeared first on the civil market was charac- sions of liaison airplanes, fighters and :erized by conventional-airfoil straight wings, single or double-slotted part-span flaps, and transports using BLC with or without propellers went on throughout the 1950's. In France, the propeller engines. The turbajet engine tech- Breguet company developed a deflected nology of wartime was working its way through slipstream, four-propellered airplane with flap the military inventory, and would appear on tCle civil market in the 1956-59period ir. the forms of and control-surface refinements, the Model 940 transport. In 1967 its successor. the Model 941, the Boeing 707, the tlouglas DC-8, and the was demonstrated in a series of simulated Convair 880. These three airplanes were scheduled airline trips, but nothing resulted.

"CTOL's" ;II the sense that, though they employed complicated flaps and leading edge The state of the STOL art by 1960, then, devices, the effectiveness of their wings in pro- was portrayed by: (1) extremely complex wing ducing high lift was no better than that of the flaps and slats with or without BLC; (2) large propeller airplanes hat preceded them. Their propellers, with or without interconnects to pre- field length requiremenis were very long, vent rolling and yawing in event of engine 9,000-10,000 faet, so from elther the perfor- failure on multi-engined airplanes; (3) roll con- mance or the technology standpoint they would trol refinements (spoilers or drooping ailerons); have to be considered simply as defining a jet- and (4) large tail surfaces, perhaps with BLC airplane CTOL developmental level.

applied.

STOL Technology. The initial impet~~s for Airplanes with lifting jet engines or lift fans the development of a STOL technology was were studied for their STOL-mode charac- provided by the military. Civil propeller teristics, but were really overloaded V/STOL airplanes of the 1946-1950 era had no great airplanes.

trouble operating from the airports of the day.

The military, however, concerned over opera- Civil jet airplane manufacturers meanwhile had been working. Though there was one test of a large jet airplane with BLC in the * Sawn. Raymond C e l e l . "Summary of Short-haul Systems Studies." NASA TM X-3010. January. 1975 mld-1960's, the most notable achievement was imum gross weight is completely unacceptable, the Boeing 727, not usually thought of as a STOL machine. Through careful tailoring of the even though it may be suffered only part of the wing shape and flap and slat configuration, time.

Bodng engineers produced a high-speed, The fate of the propeller STOL's was simi- swept wing whose high-lift performance was lar except for the Twin Otter DHC-6. The Twin almost the equal of the powered-lift straight Otter is in regular service as a commuter wings of the experimental STOL airplanes.

airliner, but its success is due in part to its Using this wing and the higher thrusthrveight simplicity and ruggedness; few of the nation's ratios available from turbofan engines, they airports from which it operates tax its achieved a 7,250-foot requirement of the capability. The Twin Otter is on the upper end 707-120. Almost at the same time Douglas of the present general aviation size spectrum, achieved similar performance gains using so it is probable that unless needs for serving early-generation "supercritical" (not Whit- progressively shorter fields appear, STOL tech- comb) wings with long double-slotted flaps, nology of greater sophistication than the Twin and fan engines. The second gencration jet Otter's (double-slotted flaps and droopy, dou- airliners could thus be called true STOL ble-slotted ailerons) will be unnecessary at machines, in terms both c' %sir high-lift tech- 12.500 pound gross weights and below.

nology and of the percentas:: improvement in field length achieved.

In the large commercial airplane area, which commuter airlines can now enter, the The technological improvements over the first generation jets were low-speed engine situation is somewhat different. Increases in thrusthrveight ratios up about 33 percent and design gross weight are accompanied by in- creases in wing loading, from which follow the maximum lift capability up about 60 percent.

increases in field IengtP. 3quirement shown in Later (1965-1975) efforts have been con- Figure 1-3. Therefore, "to fit" into a given field, centrated in the following areas: (1) "exter- progressively heavier airplanes require nally-blown flaps" (EBF), an adaptation of the progressively more sophisticated high-lift old deflected slipstream concept to the fan devices to increase the supporting capacity of engine; and, (2) "Augmentor wings," the addi- their heavily loaded wings. Conceivably, this tion of auxiliary surfaces using a jet-pump prin- requiremant would be encountered occa- ciple to augment the effect of blowing-type sionally by a commuter serving relatively high- BLC. An augmentor-wing prototype airplane volume traffic, but since the relationship be- exists.

tween demand and available runway length is The present situation illustrates a rather generally direct rather than inverse, the occa- curious fact: developments in the powered-lift sions calling for large STOL airplanes will pro- area did enable wing lift capacity to be raised, bably be exceptional. There exists at this time, but close behind came developments in non- however, a large commercial STOL airplane, powered lift-carefully tailbred wings, flaps the DeHavilland DHC-7, which is entering ex- and leading-edge devices--which nullified the perimental service on a Canadian two-sector gains from powered lift. It alsc appeared that route, the airports on which are "close-in" the weight gained by powered lift airplanes of STOL strips. The airplane is at the top of the any sort was not tolerable commercially. The size range for United States commuters operat- little Cessna 319A of 1953 grossed 10 percent ing under present CAB regulations, but this more weight than the s!andard L-19A. The limitation is not necessarily permanent.

weight penalty dir~lin~shes with increasing airpiane size until for an airplane the size of the Recently there has been the appearance of Boeing 367-80 (prototype 707) which was flown the idea of the "Reduced Takeoff and Landing" with BLC, it is only about two percent. When airplane, a concept sitting somewhere between one considers, however, that two percent of the present CTOL's and the non-existent design gross weight is about four percent of "powered-lift" STOL category.

useful load and perhaps eight percent of The technical features of RTOL are very payload, the reason for the unattractiveness of low wing loading and/or "a little" powered lift.

powered lift becomes apparent: with average As explained previously, field-length require- load factors of 40-60 percent and breakeven ment must be associated with aircraft size as load factors in the 40-percent-or-so range, an well as with technology. The study by Savin, et eight percent penalty in seats available at max- a/., was built around a range of sizes for 40 to 300 passevlgers, narrowed finally to 150 pas- '" Ibid.

sengers. l o Gross weights of 146,000 to 206,000 pounds are developed, depending on the field length requirement at all. There are other con- length requirement and the technology used. It straints, however; here are some: is shown in the study that field lengths of 3,500 (1) A short-field airport must accom- and 4.000 feet, at standard sea level conditions, modate aircra't on ramps and taxi- can be realized by airplanes of this size using ways and terminal facilities, as well mechanical flaps or upper-surface-blownflaps, as the runway itself. Even if ter- with wing loadings from 72 to 100 pounds per minal facilities (except runways) square foot. The increase in direct operating were suppressed, the ramp area re- cost of such airplanes over CTOL airplanes of quired to accommodate any like capacity would be pn the order of two per- reasonble number of aircraft is cent or so. Interpreted as a fare increase (fixed surprisingly large. It could con- IOCIDOC ratio) this is probably tolerable in the ceivably be large enough so that, very special locations for which the aircraft with parking areas laid end to end, were devised.

it would be longer than the runway Technologies discussed by Savin, el a : . , required. This would have the effect applied to airplanes of general aviation size, of relieving the short-field require- would produce far shorter field length ment itself!

capabilities. For example, the well known DHC-6 Twin Otter can in fact be considered (2) Short-field aircraft are typically technically an RTOL rather than an STOL considered as applied to sectors airplane; its advertised minimum field length is with at least one end in or near a just under 2,000 feet. The nearest counterpart Central Business District. Unless CTOL, the Swearingen Metro, requires 3,550 t i e presence of special features of feet at the same gross weight. the arecrivers or lakes, for ins- tance--renders land acquisition Ideally, aircraft should cruise at maximum cost negligible and noise and weighthhrust or weight/ power speeds. Prilc- obstruction problems tolerable, the tically, CTOL airplanes cruise at or near city-center "STOLport" is of ques- minimum trip-cost speeds, which can usually tionable feasibility from the finan- be shown to be higher than are maximum cial and public acceptance view- weighthhrust speeds. The idea that CTOL points.

aircraft might be reoptimized for cruise using STOL technology is attractive from this view- (3) Short-field aircraft consume more point. Using an example from long ago, the fuel per mile than CTOL aircraft, Cessna 319A STOL airplane would have had and have greater hardware weights the same field length requirement as its parent, and greater complexity. They are the L-19A, at a gross weight exceeding 3,300 therefore wasteful of energy com- pounds, or about 50 percent more than that of pared to their CTOL counterparts.

the L-19A. Reoptimizing for high speed cruise In the past it has been acceptable instead of short-field performance would have simply to assign marginal costs and dropped wing area an approximately corres- to ask whether the resulting fare in- ponding amount, and while the gross weight of creases would be acceptable (the the airplane would end up little less than the answer has usually been "yes" but 319A's 2,300 pound weight, the airplane would nobody really knows). The rising be more nearly in match-that is, the minimum- importance of enersy conservation cost cruise would be closer to its maximum now suggests that short-field ap- weighthhrust speed. No present day small plications should be inspected on airplanes are so matched, for various reasons an ener~y-level basis, using a con- (the 61 knot stalling speed, for one), but some cept which includes the entire sup- studies have indicated that energy conserva- porting system along with the tion may be possible. The above oxample is aircraft, and compares it with alter- vastly oversimplified (optimizationanalyses for native sys;ems.

jet airplanes, for example, must include wing- fuel volume requirements and their load-reliev- V/STOL Technology ing effects on structure weight) but the concept The Airship. The oldest V/STOL aircraft is worthy of attdntion.

was of course the balloon. Unsatisfactory as a From the standpoint of technical feasibility transportation device for use other than sport, alone, one can design an airplane to any field the balloon quickly gave place to the airship.

mally valve helium, but maintains its altitude by Three classes of airship existed by the end of making the trade3 between displacement and World War I: aerodynamic lift that are necessary as the day Rigid (envelope fully framed, gas (1) progresses and the envelope warms up, ex- carried in internal ballonets) panding the helium gas within (the envelope (2) Semi-rigid (envelope possessed a shape and size in non-rigid airships are main- "keel" structure running its entire tined by slipstream-air-filled internal balloneid).

length and part way up the sides) The larger airships could store ballast in flight by using engine exhaust conaensation to (3) Non-rigid (unframed envelope, the nickname "blimp" coming from the replace ths old sand bag ballast.

sound an early non-rigid pade The top speed of the existing non-rigids is wheq its envelop was whacked about 35 mph, and their usual operating sharply with a finger).

altitudes are very low. A typica: Goodyear non- Rigid airships were constructed in Ger- rigid has a six-plssenger (about 1,020 pounds) many before and during World War I. The payload, and requires a flight crew of one and a United States had one such machine completed sn;all ground crew of perhaps six. Ground sup- port equipment in the field consists of one large for the Navy as a contribution toward war reparations ("Los Angeles," German number equipment van, a portable mast, and crew LZ 126), and built three ("8 ,~?ndoah" ZR-1; transportation.

"Akron." ZRS-4; and, "Mac~. ZRS-5) all of ifl the racent material on airships, two ma-

which were lost. The British bul . a series, the

jor techr13logical development possibilities ap- "R" airships, the last two of which, R-100 and pear.

R-101, were constructed concurrently. R-101 The first is due to the release from the was lost The "Hindenburg" had a gas capacity limitations of the properties of meterials used in of about 7 million cubic feet. a typical payload the past for hull framing, envelope, and of about 30,000 pounds, an all-up weight of ballonets. The airships of the early 1930's were abcut 260,000 pounds, a 159,000 pound useful framed with what amounted to 17ST aluminum load and a maximun speed of 88 mph. By the alloy. An all-metal airship, the Navy's ZMC-2, end of the rigid airship era a total of 160 rigids helped stimulate the development of 4lclad, had been built. l 1 which is aluminum-alloy coated with pure Italy produced an early series of semirigid aluminum. Since then, nigher strength airships, and in the mid-1920's bdilt two large aluminum alloys have become available, and ones, "Norge" and "Italia." "Italia" was lost on synthetic fabrics have replaced the fabrics used a polar exploration flight.

in the old airshi~s.

In the years from 1931 to 1972 the The second is an evolutionary develop-

Goody . , . .,orporation built 334 non-rigids, all

ment in hull shaping. This development has but 10 of them for the Navy. This represented gone in several directions at once, helped by about 75 percent of the nation's total produc- various advocates, but essentially the technical tion. The surviving non-rigids are all used by basis is the following: The cigar-shaped hull of Goodyear for advertising. The company the conventional airship IS not an efficient pro- rebuilds these airships periodically using subs- ducer of aerodynamic lift. The lift force is very tantially the technology of the time of their weak, and is accompanied by a penalty known design, thus keeping their Airworthiness Cer- as induced drag (induced by lift, that is). Also tificates active and current, and avoiding the this hull is unstable and tends to nose in the need to type-certificate an advanced airship.

direction of the lit: force beina develo~ed. so it must be fin-stabilized lise a r;;issle o ; bomb. It The airship's total lift is secured by a com- bination of displacement lift and aerodynamic has thus been clear that while the cigar shape lift. The displacement lift is of course due to the was desirable from the standpoint of minimiz- difference in weight between equal volumes of ing drag from hoad-on winds, it was addressed to only a small part of the total aerodynamic helium or hydrogen and air: the aerodynamic lift comes from the force oi the passing air on problem, sinca an airship is se!dom exposed to the envelope; this is increased or decreased by direct head-on wilds.

increasing or decreasing the angle of attack, as On the other hand, the airplane deals with on an airplane wlng. An airship does not nor- "induced" drag and stability problems relatively successfully There should, then, ~s " VWek Joseph A Jr . (ed ) "Proceedlngsof the Interagen- some benefit to be gained from shap~ng an air- cy Workshop on Llghter Than Air Vehicles." MIT Fllght Transporta- tlon 1-aboratory Report R75-2 January, 1975 ship hull somewhat like an airolane, enabling it pilot; in the present state of require- The "Harrier" is a singleengine monoplane, its turbofan engine incorporating four exhaust ments for hirman tralning and cer- tification the vehicle is not the stacks which can swivel downward over 90 answer to every householder's degrees for hover.

dream; and Exotic Aircraft (5) for airworthiness certificaticn pur- There is a small group of arrcraft which fits poses it is an airplane. w ~ t h the into no single category such as those used costs that this implies.

above. Their performance and technology is C o n s i d e r a b l e e n g i n e e r i n g genius m~xed, and they are included in this section as nevertheless has been brought to bear on the indications of the variety of concepts that have concept, and one type is flying today. though been conc'dered in attempts to solve aviation's not in commercial quantity product~on.

problems or to increase its versatility.

Everyman's Helicopter Flyins Jeep The Idea here is that of tne absolute The Flying Jeep was a military develop- minimum one-man machine. consisting of a ment intended to provide one to four sola~ers seat. a rudinlentary undercarnage. a small with airborne battlefield transportation of the engine. a rotor, and a handle by which to steer same nature as was provided on the ground by Such machines surface occasionally. and enjoy the quarter-ton truck. A V/STOL alrcraft was ex- brief notoriety before unaccountably disap- ecuted: it had N o shrouded propellers in pearing.

tandem (or In otie version four free propellers) This history of appearaflces and vanlsh- with axes vertical, between which sat the pilot lngs seems to be the outgrowth of the fact that and his passengers. No version of the ma~hlne each such machine is a true helicopter. with the proved tractable In the alr or maneuverable on teething troubles and unstable behavior in the the ground, and the concept was shelved.

air that are characteristic of such craft. By the Airp!anelCar t ~ m e these are Ironed out. the devlce has g;own In one form or another the hybrid to perhaps 400-500 pol~nds empty weight. no a1rplane:car has been around for a long time. longer a plaything but a rea! aircraft, which for an obv~ous reason -again it offers the hope must thereupon be certificated. maintained as of traveling In elther of two transportation an alrcraft, and so forth.

systems using only one veh~cle. A small car has Flying Saucers added to it a power-takeoff drlve and extra com- The terrn "ftylng saucer" IS not technically ponents of its control system. To the car are at- def~nable As a name for "something" the tached, when desired, a tail conta~ning an ex- saucer seems to be on its way into the nat~onal tension shaft for the propeller and mountlng tall folklore As a device or class of devlces. the surfaces. and the wing. The a~rplane part of the saucer possesses an attraction based partly on asssmblage car: be towed home to the garage the inherent difficulty of making it fly at all: ~t in ofie concept. or left at the alrport In another.

presents a challenge.

The difficulties wlth thls attractive idea Considered as an a~rcraft. the saucer- seem to be the following: shaped vehicle can be v~ewed as alrplane and (1) as an automob~le the vehlcle 1 s as hoverinq device cramped (more at least than the "family car") and laden with extra As an a~rplane. the saucer-shaped vehlcle machinery; 1 s slmply a round-w~nged varient of the f~xed- wing aircraft The round wlng IS under a con- as an a~rplane i: suffers from having (2) s~derable aerodynamic d~sadvantage (that of to drag the car around, dlmlnishing excessive Induced drag) compared w ~ t h the its effic~ency as a fly~ng machine: slender wlngs with which ail vlable subsonic it has an interface problem Either it (3) alrplane types are equ~pped Round-winged must be hauled through the streets.

airplanes have. however, been built and flown.

vulr~orable to minor tidff~c, accl- most notably one concelvad during World War dents any of which can render it im- II for the Navy as :he min~mal "container" for med~ately useless as ar' plrplane. or two of the heav~est p~ston englflcs. A reduced- the airplane part must be left at the scale prototype was flown. but the full-scale alrport to accrue the usual t~e-down mach~ne was rendered obsolete by the ad;rent fees or hangar rent; of the jet englne The round-winged fighter's In flight ~t must be operated by a entire wlng was bathed In the sl~pstreams from (4) its large propellers, and though not a V/STOL. seaplanes, helicopters, airships. or balloons.

the fighter did signal the resurgence of the idea More than 50 years ago it was recom- of the wing-deflected slipstream and its ap- mended that "flight stops" be piaced along the plication to VETOL.

highway. Such stops would be nothing more To hover, a vertical flow of air must be than a landing and take-off strip adjacent to a gasoline service station. This would combine established to provide the sustaining force on motor car and airplane service to assure max- the aircraft. To hover efficiently-that is, with- out the expenditure of much energy-the imum and dependable service. Flight stops were to be a part of the national highway diameter of the vertical airstream must be as system. l 3 A recommendation was made that large as practicable and its velocity very ;ow.

This the helicopter provides admirably with its No arterial motor highway large diameter rotor. Attempts to produce a should be built in the future without sustaining force equal to that of a helicopter, including adjacent flight stops every but using a device that accelerates a smaller 30 to 50 mlles for the personal flyer.

diameter airstream faster, use more energy Flight stops will mean a landing area than the helicopter uses.

for practically every town and hamlet located on such superhighways.

It follows that unless space limitations are thus providing those sma!l com- critical. the helicopter '9 the way to go. If rotor munities with an additional means of diameter is limited (the slipstream small and transportation. " fast) a ring-shaped shroud can be put around the rotor and will help some (this is the This scheme, started in the late 1920's by "shrouded propeller" of the flying jeep). The the Richfield Oil Corporation, failed largely due ring can even be configured to look like a to the fact that personal aircraft were still too "saucer" but there is no aerodynamic advan- expensive In both initial and maintenance tage in doing so, though some needed stiffness costs. The depression of the 19303 also played of the shroud may be gain&.

~ t s part in pre!enting the commercial success There are classes of V/STOL aircraft con- of the venture.

cepts which use shrouded propellers because This section will discuss varioas types of of diameter limitations, but they do not resem- landing facilities with particular emphasis on ble saucers because of the inefficiency of the general aviation airports. The discussion will round wlng in forward flight.

include airport classification. airport design As matters stand, none of the exotic aircraft and layout, airport administration and opera- In this group has found a commercial applica- tion, and general aviation support facilities on tion. Although there is always room to say "but the airport.

they might in tne future" and always danger in Airport Classification saying "they never will." there is no present reason for thinking that the compromises and Classification by Aircrafl Type Inefficiencies that have characterized them in The ground-air interface in the Unlted the past will be overcome to an extent that will States consists of a national network of landing glve them a place. relative to the successful facilities which can be categorized by the types types of aircraft, more important than they now of vehlcles served as follows: I s occupy.

Airports serving land airplanes 11.160 AIR SUPPORT FACILITIES Seaplane bases Introduction serving seaplanes 472 The interface between ground and air is a Heliports 1.430 landing facility which links the air and the sur- face transportation systems. This facility is Total 13,067 commonly identified as an "airport" since most Airports are designed around one or more of the landing facilities fall into the category of landlng areas called runways which may range serving primarily land airplanes as opposed to

-

from 50 feet wide and 1,500 feet long to 500 feet '' Froasch Charles and Prokosch Walter A~rporf Plannrng.

wide and 14.572 feet long. l 6 Seaplane bases 1st ed . (John W~ley qnd Sons 1946). p 165 are primarily docking facilities adjacent to " lbrd. p 74 natural lakes. rivers. and ocean or bay areas '' Federal Avtat~on Adm~n~strat~on. January 1. 1975.

which support seaplanes (land airplanes with Srat~stlcs released In news release 75-83, May 27. 1975 pontoons) and flying boats (airplanes des~gned '@John F Kennedy lnternat~onal Airport. New York

number of annual operations. '' As indicated in

to land on the fuselage on water surfaces).

Heliports are designated facilities for rotary- Table I-IV the number of passengers determine wing aircraft (helicopters) and many separate whether the airport falls into the primary, se- facilities are located adjacent to an airport. An condary, or feeder classification; and, the num- area (such as those on top of buildings in ber of annual operations determines the density metropolitan areas) designed to accommodare grouping within these three classifications.

one, or a few vehicles, is identified as a helipad.

Communities. as distinguished from air- A helistop is similar to a bus stop, allowing a ports, are also classified in the National Airport helicopter to pick up and discharge passengers System. The cities, or Standard Metropolitan along pre-arranged routes, but without other Statistical Areas(SMSAs), fall into one of four support facilities.

types determined by the area's share of the na- Airpart Ownership tional total number of passengers enplaned on Airports in the United States are also domestic certificate0 carriers. The four types classified in terms of 0wner~hiD as Dublic or are as fo!lows: private--a classification scheme which deter- Hub Type Percenl ot Total mines eligibility for federal aid for development.

Enplaned Passemgers Public airports are those whose ownership is by Large Hub 1 % or more a public body such as a city, county, or state.

Medium Hub .25 to .99% Private airports are owned by individuals or .05 to .24% Small Hub companies and are ineligible for federal funds Non-hub Less than .05% 2" and, in most cases. state or local aid.

There are approximately 150 communities All public airports which have received in the United States classified as hub. biised federal aid are open to public (government), upon the .05 percent or more of the annual 202 commercial, and private aircraft. within the m~llion total passengers or 101 ,GOO enplane- operational limitations of both the aircraft and ments. 21 Richmond, as an example, with the airport. Access to prlvate airports is deter- 503,000 passengers and 190.000 operations an- mined by the owners and generally falls into nually, wo~jld be classified as a small hub com- one of three categories: (1) unrestricted (open munity, ana the airport, Byrd Field, would be to all aircraft). (2) restricted to airport owners classified as a secondary, medium density and those with prior permission. and (3) class airport in the National Airport System. 22 restricted to airport owners.

Airports with only general aviation activity A breakd~wn of alrports in the United l~sually fall into the Non-hub category, even if a States by ownership is as follows: large number of passengers are transported in Publlc 4.575 general aviation aircraft.

Private 8,487 Airport Operational Role (5,599 clowd to public)" Airport system planners use another National Airport System classification syster~i based primarily on the The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) maximum size of the aircraft served by the air- has developed a breakdown of the 3,040 airports port. Th~s scheme d~vides airports into four in the National Airport System Plan (NASP) categories: 23 shown in Table I-IV.l0 This classific?!;on recognizes that all civil airports in the United (1) BASIC UTILITY (BU): (Previous distinc- States serve general av~ation to some degree tlons between Stages 1 and 2 have been elimi- and measures any airport's funct~onal role by nated.) This type of development theoretically two operational criteria: (1) number of enplaned accommodates about 95 percent of the general passengers by certificated air carriers. and (2) aviation propeller fleet cnder 12,500 pounds - (maxium gross weight). There is no special ac- " op crt. FAA. January 1. 1975 tlvir; cr~terion required for this type of airport.

' Ibrd '* An operation IS defined by the FAA as a takeoff or a land- (2) GENERAL UTILITY (GU): Thls type of Ing airport accommodates substantially all general ao 1972 Natronal Arrpon System Plan. Volume AEA Eastern aviation propeller alrcraft under 12,500 pcanas.

Reg~on. Federal Av~at~on Admlnlstrat~on 5972 At least 500 annual itinerant operatiorls of '' Alr Transport Assoc~at~on of Arnerlca. Atr Transport 1974.

alrcraft between 8,000 - 12,000 pounds aro re-

Washington D C 1974. p 3 quired.

op crt . 1972. Nat~onal A~rport System Plan updated by Computer Pr~ntout to February 1975 (3) BASIC TRANSPORT (01): These air- '' Sources BU and GU from FAA AC 150-53M)-4A. 11-66, BT and GT from FAA AC 150-53GIM.769 ports accommodate all general aviation aircraft TABLE I-lV NATIONAL AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Airport Category Annual Passeng6r Annual Operations Enplanements Primary System More than 1,000,000 High Density More than 350.000 Medium Density 250,000 to 350,000 Low Density Less than 250,000 Sscondary System 50,000 to 1,000,000 High Density More than 250.000 Medium Density 100,000 to 250,000 Low Density Less than 100,000 Feeder System Less than 50,000 High Density More than 100.W Medium Density 20.000 io 100,000 Low Density iess than 20,000 Note: Airports classified as above are those within FAA's "National System of Airports." The United States airport network also includes those classified as "local interest airports" and "miiltary airports." The latter two groups are those public, private, and military facilities not deemed necessary by FAA for the country's "National System of Airports."

Source: FAA AC 150-5090-2, June 25, 1971.

up to 60,000 pounds MGW Including propeller level, i.e.. those unable to accommodate 95 per- transports and business or executive jets. A BT cent of general aviation propeller aircraft.

a~rport must indicate at least 500 (existing or Airport Functions forecast) anniral itinerant operations by airsraft Identification of an airport on the basis of a between 12,500 and 60,000 pounds MGW.

major or specialized function that it performs is (4) GENERAL TRANSPORT (GT): These often convenient. The most common such airports generally accommodate transport designst~ons are as follows: category aircraft up to 175,000 pounds MGW (1) Air carrier (5) Reliever The minimum requirement for this type of air- (2) Joint use (6) Industrial port is at least 10 existing or forecast itinerant (3) General aviation (7) Recreational DEPARTURES per week (or 1,040 itinerrnt (4) Local interest operations per year or season) by either the cri- tical type aircraft or ONE of the appropriate Air carrier airports are those w ~ t h certifi- families of aircraft. This classification level is cated scheduled air carrier service. Joint use airports are jointly used and/or owned by mili- sometimes referred to as Scheduled Transports (ST) or Air Carrier (AC). tary and civil users. The general aviation air- ports are those which serve general aviation The system described above relates run- exclusively, i.e., the airports without either cer- way lecgth and bearing capacity to aircraft size tificated air carrier service or military opera- In terms of maximum !skec;ff weight and annual tions.

operations. %me planners may develop finer breakdowns based upon reduced loads, e.g., Local interest airports usually are these BT 100E0, a basic transport runway which ac- which are not part of the federal or state system commodates 100 percent ot the transport fleet of airports. These can be either privately or at 60 percent of maximum load. This classifica- publicly owned fields with limited capacity for tlon system excludes or mandates the upgrad- operations and f ~ t u r e development. Limitations may be due to nearby obstructions, unfavorable ing of general aviation airports below the BU terrain, remote access, or other factors such as factor, covenience to users. If the airport is not convenient to those who wish to use it, the pro- popu:ation trends which would restrict either ject is unlikely to be successful.

the size or number of eircraft using the facility.

The reliever airport is one designated by Runways FAA to serve as a reliever for an air carrier air- Although most general aviation airports do port in a metropolitan area. In effect, reliever not have two runways, or runways over 5,000 airports are intended to reduce traffic and con- feet in length, layout of a general aviation air- gestion at the air carrier airport by diverting port recommended by the FAA is shown in general aviation activity.

Figure 1-6. 25 The layout is a plan of an airport The industrial alrport is ar, airport designed with a summary of the basic data required for around an industrial park enabl~ng companies planning and development.

with their own airplanes. and/or doing business Included in the plan is a Basic Data Tab!e with companies or clients with aircraft to have which provides airport information such as its convenient air access. This concept is valid elevation in feet above sea level, its geographic from a land use standpoint in that much of the coordinates (a point near the center of the air- land required around an airport to protect clear port is used as a geographic reference point).

zones and approaches can be utilized by ~ndus- its navigational a~ds, and its mean temperature try which is less bothered by noise than resi- of the hottest month.

dential users.

Basic runway data inclllde the slope of the The recreational airport is one serving a runway (effectwe runway gradient), the w i ~ d resort or other recreational area by providing a coverage. the navigation and lighting aids serv- convenient air access facility allowlng pilots ing the runway. and the runway load bearing who fly in to park and walk or be transported to capacity for various aircraft.

the recreational facilities. Some resort owners The airport is desigced around one or more view aircraft owners as a legitimate hlgher in- runways. The single runwq's design is very come market best served with an airport common for general aviation since it requires a designed and located as an Integral part of the minimum amount of land. Each airport layout is reson facility.

planned around the direction and velocity of the Airport Design and Layout prevailing winds for the geographic area. The wlnd rose in Figure 1-6, developed from off~c~al Airport Design weather data shows the percent of coverage of Thare are at least 10 factors wh~ch should sach runway under crosswind conditlons. Such be considered In analyzing new sites and in a table would indicate the requirement for an planning and design~ng new airports. They are: additional runway ~f one runway cannot prov~de ( 1) Convenience to users 95 percent coverage under velocities of 15 mph. Most general aviation aircraft can be ( 2) Availab~l~ty to land and land costs operated w~th up to a 15 knot (18 mph) ( 3) Des~gn and layout of the airport crosswind component (a w~nd equivalent to 18 ( 4) Alrspace obstructions mph at 90" to the runway.) 26 ( 5) Eng~neering factors When a second crosswind runway is utilized, it can be arranged with the first runway ( 6) Soc~al Factors as a crossing runway as in Figure 1-6. or as a separate or connecting runway with the ar- ( 8) Atmospher~c conditlons rangement determined by such factors as num- ber of runways. surface (hard surface or grass).

( 9) Hazards due to birds length. land available, obstructions, and extent (10) Coord~nat~on ~41th other airports. 24 and locat~on of facilities.

H~gh priority should be glven to the first The use of parallel or non-intersecting angled runways serves to allev~ate traff~c for "Paquette Radnor Ashford Norman and Wright Paul a~rports w ~ t h high density of oparations or to Transportabon Engrneenrj Plann~ng and Desrgn. (New York The separate traff~c or ~ncompatible mix such as air Ronald Press Co 1 . 1972 p 732 carrler and general aviat~on or conventional " Abstracted from Arrporf Master Plans AC 150 50706.

Federal Avlat~on Adrn~nlstrat~on February. 1971 p 41 general aviation and STOL or VTOL. 2 7 " Uhlrly A~rports AC 150'5300-4A.Federal Av~at~on Admln~s- The runway surfaces may be hard surface.

trat~on. November. 1968 pp 89-93 biacktop (b~tuminous), concrete, or grassfturf.

''STOL - Short Takeoff and Landlng VTOL - Vert~cal Takeofl and Landlng Wh~le most general avlation aircraft can be LOCATION YAP BASIC DATA TABLE RUYWCY DATA PUIWAI . z . 3 0 IIUIWAV 5 . 2 3 E X I S T I N O U L T l U A T E E X I S T I N O V ~ T l u A l r ' ' c r r r c T ~ n ~ J N W A T WWENT I I N ~ T - - K C s r v r o t o , srur ~.

-1. w m ~ P W I A ~ 9 4 wrr ' - . S T l U I . I m m . 7 P A V t Y n STn€*gT* LO(T*O DUAL T A W 101 I O E A R A U ) C l A P T ~~.

- I AIRPORT LAYOUT PLAN FIGURE 1-6

OBIGINAE P m - m

OF POOR Q U -

a?L THESE P L A N S SHOULD NOT I t USED A S STANOAROS COR PLAMMING OR DCSION u I I O B IC V~SIONS o a n DEWAAD ClT V AIRPORT WWYISSOII DEWALD AIRPORT ANVWUCIIC. U 9 1 1

t

A I R P O R T LAYOUT PLAN I

operated from grass surfaces, hard surfaces structure combining office and storage space are desirab;~ due to reduced friction, smoother to a larger off~ce building and separate ride, and lower probability of aircraft damage storagelmaintenance sbructures. Airports wltn by stones and foreign objects.

fire and crash equipment will locate such fac~lit~es centrally so as to be close to the run- Taxiways ways and taxiways as in Figure 1-6.

Supporting the runway system are access routes called taxiways which connect the run- (2) Approx~mately 25 to 33 percent of the ways with the ramp and parking areas. Taxi- res~dent aircraft owners desire inside storage ways separate ground traffic from the active to protect aircraft from the elements and pro- runway, thereby increasing the capacity of the vide security. Storage is accomplished tither airport. Taxiways may be limited to one prlmary by a slngle unit type hangar conta~ning 5 :.) 20 runway or may encompass all runways with aircraft, or individual stalls commonly called "T connectors or turnoffs to facilitate exit and hangars." The latter are usually connected in a entrance at various points. series and located In rows adjacent to taxiways as shown in Figure 1-6.

Airport Airspace Airspace around the airport 1 s protected (3) Air traffic control tower facilities are from r~bstruztions by the legal desigriation d likely :o 5e found on top of the administration or clear zones or corridors. The lower boundary of term~nal build~ng In the case of older facilities.

the clear zone is sloped upwards and away In new facilities these are contalned in a separ- from the end of the runway on a required slope ate high-rise structure, located to provide an criterion which is determined by runway use unobstructed view of all aircraft operating and the operational role of an airport. The slope areas on the airport Some navigational aids varles from 20 to 1 for a basic utility (BU) airport are contalned in a small frame building adja- to a 50 to 1 slope for a runway with a precision cent to the runways that they serve. A~rports instrument approach system at a general with an instrument landing system require ap- transport (GT) airport. 2 8 proach lights near the end of the runway, and off airport aids such as lights and radio The airspace to the side of the runway 1 s beacons called markers.

also legally protected by buffer zones from any F~gure 1-6 shows navigational aids serving buildings or structures (s4e Builc~ng Restric- tion Line in Figure 1-6). and terraln or other runway 30112 whlch consist of the following: obstructions through s~de clear zones with 1. VASI. A vlsual approach slope in- generally a 7 to 1 slope.

d~cator to provide optical/visual descent yu!dance to Runway 12 Airport Facilities LOC. A locallzer system to provide Connecting the taxiways with the aircraft direct~onal gu~dance for Runways storage and parking facilities are connectors 30 and 10.

and aprons which may also serve as temporary parking for aircraft. Long-term parking is ac- 3. Gl~de slope for electron~c vertlcal commodated by t~e-down areas for aircraft descent guldance to Runway 30.

stored outside.

4.

Approach l~ghting system for vlsual Ground access to the airport is through reference trans~tion on Runway 30.

one or more roads which connect w ~ t h 5. Markers to identify posit~on on the perimeter roads and driveways leading to ad- Runway 30 approach An outer ministration buildings, facilities, hangars, and marker, not shown In Figure 1-6, is aircraft parking areas.

located 5-7 miles from the airport Other facilities on the airport fall Into four on the center-line of Runway 30. 29 broad categories: (4) General avlatlon services are prov~ded (1) Administrative and support facilities utilizing a varlety of termlnal and operational are those utilized by the airport owners or fac~lit~es wh~ch support the particular opera- authorities for offlces and the storage and tion. The terminal buildlng is a fac~l~ty des~gned maintenance of vehicles and ground support to servlce alr carrier passengers and IS not nor- equipment. Depending upon the airport, the mally found on a general awation airport unless facility may range from a small, steel-type left over from earher use of the facllity for alr carrier operatlons

In Utility A~rports. op cit . p 20

Most operations are conducted In fac~l~ties " A~rman's Inlormation Manurl Part 1 . Federai Av~at~on Ad- rnlnlstratlon. Wash~ngton. D C . May 1975. p~ 10. 18. 19 erected or leased by the general aviatlon f~xed

~ ~ E C E D I N G PAGE BLANg NOT FLMEU

The major administralive responsibilitiesof base operators commonly called FBOs. FBO the general aviation airport manager are plan- f a c i l i t i e s r a n g e f r o m a s m a l l hangarlofficellounge combination facility to an ning, deve'opment, maintenance, and opera- extensive layout with several hangars, mainie- tions. An airport master plan presents the plan- ner's conception of the ultimate development of nance shops, and a large officellounge classroom building. In addition to the FBO a specific airport. Master plans are applied to facia'ties there may be several specialized the modernization and expansion of existing facilities which provide spec~fic general avia- airports and to the construction of new airports, regardless of their size or functional role.

tion services, operating cgt of hangars, hangarloffice facilities or even mobile struc- Master plans disclose anticipated amounts and tures. types of air and ground traffic for proposed or existing landing facilities. Theoretically a master plan program will (1) cause the persons

Administration and Operation

responsible for organizing the local endeavor Amininistrb'lve Organization to come to agreement as to just what should be To a certain extent administrative pro- planned and built and. (2) become an instru- cedures of a general aviation airport are a func- ment whicn permits those charged with the ac- tion of ownership. Most of the privately owned tual planping and construction of the builoing fields in the United States are landing strips on to proceed with the~r work in a progressive and the owner's land which accommodate only a orderly fashion.

few private aircrafi. Privately owned a~rports are The FAA emphasizes and encourages long administered as the owners chocse.

range planning for airports and administers the Public airports are adminlstered by the Planning Grant Program (PGP) whlch provides public body (commissi~n or authority) which funds for up to 66 percent of the cost of represents the units owning the facility. There developing a 20-year master plan for a public are several types of aaministrative structures alrport. A plan is developed using the c0r.1- with the particular type primarily dependent on bined efforts of a consultant. the FAA, and the the size and activity of the airport. For example.

sponsor (the alrport authority or commission).

airports may be admin~stered by the mayor of The master plan as prescribed by the FAA the city as just another unit within his jurisdic- is usually divided into four phases: tion. This :nethod is appropriate for small, low act,vity airports where the administrat;,:' de- (1 ) Airport Requirements mand does not require the expertise dndlor This includes an inventory cf ex- tlrne of a full-time airport manager. Another fre- isting facilities, airspace, airports, quently used method is to lease the entire air- land use laws and ordinances, fi- port to a general aviation base operator with nancial resources, and socio-eco- responsibility for a~rport mainterlance and nomic factors.

operations assumed by the operator. Other air- The demand for aviation services ports may have a full-time or part-time alrport for 5,10, and 20 year time-frames manager designated w~th one or more addl- is forecast.

tlonal staff.

A demandlcapacity analysis is Administrative Functions made to include cost versus In considering the actual adm~nistrat~on of benefits, and facility requirements an airport one must disti~guish between the air- are developed from this analysis.

port and general aviation operations on the air- (;I) Site Selection port. The airport owner is responsibie for the design, construction. and maintenance of the For new airports or the relocation physical facilities used by the public and by of existing airports, a site selec- tenants of the airport. Operations on the airport tion or evaluation is conducted of relate to the operation of aircraft and general all possible sites within a 30- aviation services provided for such operation.

minute drive of the community Flight oparation on the airport is the respon- population center.

sibility of the owners or operators of the partic- (3) Airport Plans ular aircraft. Services are the responsibility of The airport layout (Figure !-6), those p;o\!;ding them. In some cases, the air- land use, terminal area, and air- port owner provides one or more services such as aircraft fueling, aircraft storage, and park- port access are shown as plan- ning drawings.

ing.

(4) Financial Plan which provide limited revenue on unused land.

A common practice is a contract wit9 a local The schedules, cost estimate, farmer to mow all the grass areas in exchange economic feasibility, and 2ro- for use of certain areas for farming.

posed plan for financing are con- sidered for all proposed devalop- Maintenance of lights and navigational ment.'O aids may be shared with FAA personnel for those facilities which are installed by the FAA Airport development is the process of ex- and/or used as approach navigdiional aids. The ecution of the master plan. The FAA also par- maintenance of leased facilities is determined ticlpates in this phase through the Airport by the terms of the lease. Snow renloval is a ma- Development Aid Program (ADAP). The FAA jor effort for airports in the northern climates.

will participate in most non-revenue producing Since salt cannot be used on runways and taxi- development projects such as land acquisition, ways due to its corrosive effect on aluminum, runways. taxiways, and aprons. The FAA share surfaces must be kept free of snow to avoid ac- ranges from 50 to 100 percent depending upon cumulation and packing. Because snow and the particular project. As the need for a project ice account for more closed ailports in certain is identified, tne airport authority prepares a regions !han fog, the airport must be equipped project plan and applies to the FAA for approval to c?eal with them.

and funding. Once granted, the airport authority proceeds with the project, which is The exteni of an airport authority's involve- usually contracted through competitive bids.

ment in operations varles from nil to full respon- As the community requirements for aviatlon sibility as both airport owner and operator.

services and facilities change so does the Most airports restrict their involvement in fuel aynamic airport planning and development pro- roles on the premise that it IS more practical to cess. The FAA resommends updating of the consolidate fuel sales through one agency than master plan at one-year intervals if indicated by for each operator on the airport to attempt to changes in aeronautical demand.

negotiate a fuel contract on a lower volume po- tential.

Maintenance and upkeep of the airport In- volves many functions common to industrial. Airports with certificated air carrier service highway, and agricultural facilities. The unique must be certificated as airports under FAR Part characteristic of an airport is the requirement 139. This regulation spells out requirements for such airports in the area of safety and opera- for close surveillance and action on items whlch may affect safety in flight operations; ap- tlons as related to air carriers. While not ap- proach paths, runways, and taxiways must be plicable to general avlatlon airports, certain kept free of all obstructions and foreign objects provisions of this regulation may be adopted on a voluntary basis. An example would be the wnich may be a hazard to approaching and landing aircraft cr cause costly damage to pro- provision for firelcrash rescue capability on the pellers andlor engines. An object ingested by a airport.

jet englne from a ramp may result In thousands of dollars in damage.

General Aviation Operators Small tirc size in relation to welght of General Aviation Services on an airport are aircraft dictates runway and taxiway bearing generally prcvided by one or more FBOs. The capacities In excess of comparable paved high- FBO operates under a lease agreemznt with the way surfaces for many general aviation air- airport outhorlty under which the airport pro- ports. The need is dlctated for a smooth. well- vides facilities andlor land with the authority to maintained surface for all aircraft operating provide services to general aviation users.

areas Grass areas of the airport whicb are used These services may include any one or a com- by aircraft for runways, taxiways, and parking bination of the follow;ng, listed in general order must be kept mowed to a low height in order !:, of importance and/or frequency: reduce friction and eliminate unseen hazards.

(1) Aircraft storage and parking.

Some airports have turned unused areas be- tween and adjacent to runways into crops (2) Fuel sales to locally based and itinerant general aviation aircraft.

A~rport Master Plan. Federal A v ~ a t ~ o n Adm~n~strat~on, AC 150'50706. Untted States Government Prlnttng Olflce. February.

(3) Arcraft, engine, and accessory maintenance and repair.

'' Federal Avratron Regulations Part 139. Certrlrcstron an6 Operatrons Lend A ~ p ~ r t s Sew.ng CAB Certrhcated Ccheduled (4) Flight and ground instruction Carners Operatrng Large Arrcralt Federal Av~atlcn Adm~n~strat~on.

(5) Aircraft rental.

U S G P 0 , Cecember 1974 preferably 20 years or longer with (6) .Qirtaxi, charter service.

renewal options.

(7) Aircraft sales---new and/or used.

(2) The -right to provide desired ser- Aircraft parts and accessory sales.

(8) vices and conduct operations in ac- Other specialized services such as cordance with reasonable stan- (9) air ambulance, aerial photography. dards.

banner towing. aerial application (3) The right to construct facilities for (crop dusting).

such operations.

The extent and quality of servlces provided Reasonab ie rental charges based (4) is determined by the size and activity level of upon the land and facilities pro- the airport, the type of users and aircraft, the vided by the airport or the gross number of operators, and the airport's com- sales volume or a combination pliance standards and lease term.

thereof. A typical schedule of lease Small airports with a low level of activity charges by the airport might be as and few based aircraft (12 or less) might offer follows: only aircraft storage and parking since this ser- 2 percent of gross sales exclud- vice requires no persot~nel on duty. Twelve to ing fuel and aircraft sales 25 based aircraft is generally considered a 2 cents-4 cents per gallon of minimum number to support an FBO offering fuel %Id the first three services listed above. As the 6 cents-12 cents per square number of b a d aircraft and re!ated aviation foot of unimpraved land activcty increases, additional services can be 15 cents-20 cents per square justified. As a general rule. only the medium to foot of improved land (paved large activity airports offer the full range c!

aprons. ramps, etc.)

general avlation services.

$3.00-$7.00 per square foot of An important decision for the airport hangar and office space ( ~ f manager is one of determining if, and when. a such facilities are provided second or additional general aviation operator by airports).

is justified. The Federal Aviation Act oi 1958 Tb2 lease is a compromise between the in- prohibits the granting of exclusive rights on a terests of the airport autnorlty whlch des~res to federally funded airport. As a result. the airport obtain maximum revenue in exchange for the authority cannot arbitrarily limit the number of land and facilities used. and the FBO who operators on an alrport. The airport authority desires the lowest cost lease in order to maxi- can establish reasonable compliance stan- mize his profit and return on investment. Since dards for any new operation.

a major portion of many lease charges is fixed The development of the c~mpliafice stan- and unrelated to business volume, the operator dards must be done in recognition of the non- often blames the lease as the cause of his finan- exclusive r~ghts provision of the Fzderal Avia- cial failure.

tion Acl; of the need to malntaln a level of There are frequent instances, unfor- qual~ty and safety ic new operations equal to or tunately. of lease agreements developed by an better than existlng operations; and, the need to airport without consideration to the l~mited provide reasonable protection tor the invest- profit potential and low return on Investment.

ment of an e). ;ting operator or operators. The characteristic of most general aviation opera- latter can only be accomplished by the develop- tions. There are cases on record of airports ment of minimum levels of activity necessary to which have experienced numerous failures of justify additional services or operstions. When general aviation operators where sufficient ac- these levels have been passed, a new operation tivity existed to support an operator. The funda- ; a n be established on the airport provided that mental cause was oft . I found to be the lease operatlon meets the compliance standards.

which. if modified to terms more favorable to The compliance standards identify the the operator would make possible a sound, f r - minlmum standards for facilit~es and services to nancially healthy operation and more revenue be provided and serve as :he framework cnder for the alrport in the long run.

whlcti the lease is developed. The compliance AIRWAYS AND AVIONICS standards and Ic?asc terms vary widely from air- port to alrport. but a few prov!sions generally are recognized as deslrable: A lease term of at least 10 years and This section will deal primar~ly with both (1) arnvays and avionics as components of the port environment and in the en route phase of general aviatron system. The airways system the flight. The great disparity of speed between v l ~ l l be defined to include the en route traffic most general aviation aircraft and the other two :nnes In the airspace. the airport terminal area.

segments of aviation activity will always pose a c; t *%n equipment lns!alled in the vehlcle hazardous condition withir, the airways system.

enabllny ~t tu make rnhimurn safe use of those As a result, there will always be pressure on the alrways. Thls dlscw, on w ~ l l be concerned with general aviation community to vacate the air- the f o l l o w ~ ~ ~ y geverdl topir r air traffic control, ways system, particularly in congested areas.

navigational a~ds, and ;he operation of these The problem then becomes that of upgrading components wlthin the national airways the abll~ty of general aviation vehicles to opar- system.

ate in the nat~onal alrways system with safety and reliab~lity. Since only small breakthroughs Use of the nat~onal atrways system has in- seem possible in low speed aerodynamics, creased to the point where the system is badly most of this upgrading musi be rea!ized congested at tce hub alrports. lncreaslng con- through better electronic systems and im- gestion along the airways results In an increae- proved pilot ability. Poss~bie future directions Ing probabll~ty of m~dair coll~sions. The i n this area will be discussed. following capacity of the airways system must be ex- descrrptrons of the Air Traffic Control System panded to accommodate growth in aviation and the nav~gatlonal aids presently in use.

fleets. Very llttie land is ava~lable near the major population centers for the construction of new Air Traffic Control alrports or for the additlo1 of capacity to exist- Air traffic control consists of both ground- Ing fac~lit~es Alrspace aronnd these population based electron~c navigat~onal and communica- centers IS used to capacity during much of the tloris facil~t~es. Grcur~d-based facilit~es consist tlme: a s~tuation presentlns safety hazards and ma~nly of high prec~sion radar and visual dis- unacceptable delays in both the landlng and pidys. wh~le commun~catlons facilities provide departure of aircraft. The ava~!able navlyatron for both automatic transmission of information a ~ d s use most of the available time and and oral communicat~on among air traffic con- spectrum a1 located to them. Any improvement trollers and between them and operators of the in system performance will have to be mainly In a~rcraft. Much ot the automatic transm~ssion of the capab~l~ty and sophlstlcat~on of these a~ds informat~on IS prov~ded by the transponder and rather than in an increase of thelr number. Thls the encodlng alt~meteis located on the aircraft.

w ~ l l permlt optimum metering and spaclng In the alrways system.

The alr traffic control system IS the most critical component of the entlre nat~onal air- General avlatlon has a problem related to.

ways system and it is approaching saturation yet Independent from, the air carrlers whlch Thls IS probably the principal factor which will cause most of the congestion in airways near determine des~gn and location of major alrports the major populat~on centers The problem in the future. General aviat~on IS affected by thls results from h ~ g h costs lnvolved In equlpplng saturation because unless there is alleviat~on of gereral avlatlon a~rcraft wlth the requ~red traiflc. general aviat~on may be excluded from navlgat~on and communication equipment the major arr carrler alrports.

necessary for uslng the alrways Many general operattons of sucrl l~ghter alrcraft are in the En Route System vlclnlty of relatively l~ghtly loaded general avia- The alr trafflc control problem is divlded t ~ o n airports: hownver, a certain percentage of Into two major areas. The first IS the en route general av~atlon actlv~ty takes place in the system, comprlslng the alrways between the vlclnlty of !he hub a~rports major a~rports. The second IS the area sur- rounding the major (sllnplif~ed In thls case to air Safe and reliable operat~on requ8res that a carrier airports) terminals. 'The en route system fl~ght can be in~t~ated with a reasonable pro- IS governed by two sets of flight rules. VFR bab~l~ty of completion, between any two polnrs (vlsual fl~ght rules) and IFR (instrument fl~ght des~red barring poor weather and/or mechanl- rules) In general. VFR means that weather con- cal or electrical malfunction ditloi-s are good enough for the pilot to operate One severe hand~cap imposed on most the alrcraft In a safe and efflclent manner by general avlatlon a~rcraftis their low speed vlsual reference to the ground. Under VFR con- Most air carrler and m~l~tary sctlv~tles involve d~t~ons. there IS essent~ally no en route air h ~ g h speed jet a~rcraft. wliilt: non-jet general t r a f f ~ c control except where s p e c ~ f ~ c a l l y avlatlon alrcraft necessarily operate at much prescribed; a~rcraftfly according to "rules of lower speeds. Both exlst In the ~mmed~ate air- the road" uslng designated alt~tudes for certaln headings and are responsible for maintaining aircraft, thus increasing the capacity of existing their own separation. airways. There are presently 27 Air Route Traffic Control Centers ( ARTCCs) which in- Positive traffic corltrol is always exercised clude 91 different radar installations. The In IFR conditions and in designated control following 20 centers cover the airspace of the areas. Essentially, these rules require the con- contiguous 43 states: Albuquerque, Atlanta.

trolled assignment of specific altitudes and Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Denver. Fort routes and minimum separation of aircraft fly- Worth. Houston, Indianapolis, Jacksonville.

ing in the same direction as shown in Figure Kansas City, Los Angeles. Memphis, Miami.

1-7. Controlled airspace extends upward ! ; o m Minneapolis. New York. Oakland, Salt Lake 700 feet Above Ground Level (AGL) in almost City, Seattle, and Washington.

all contiguous areas immediately sirrrounding The capabl Ilty of the entire ATC system WI ll an airport. In order to achieve greater airspace utilization and safety the area above 14,500 be upgraded further by requiring all aircraft feet Mean Sea Level (MSL) has been desig- using the system to be equlpped with a Discrete nated as a Continental Control Area. Aircraft Address Beacon System (DASS). In 1975. all flying above thls altitude are high performance aircraft but not all of the ground-based ATC aircraft. In positive control areas above 18.000 system were required to be so equlpped. When fee; MSL. all aircraft are controlled by con- implementation is complete. all aircraft using tinuous surveillance and are required to be the ATC system will beequippeci with transpon- equipped wlth transponders and communica- ders which will furnish identification. as well as tion equlpment. Termlnal Control Areas, such altltude information. This automatic information as the one shown In Figure 1-8, are belng transfer will facilitate the ATC mission. and designated arour?d major hub areas to Impose substantially reduce the amount of communlca- special operating requirements on al, flights in +ion requlred between ground controllers and thls arrspace. Additionally. spec~al purpose pilots.

areas are designii!ed as areas In whlch flight Terminal Area Control operation IS elther orohibited sr restricted Ex- The next component i~ the control system amples of such rest,lctions are In weapons' IS !he alrport traffic control tower. There are ranges. identiflcatlon zones and student p~lot presently 327 control towers In the Untied trainlng areas.

States located mostly at air carrier terminals.

The present en raute system of always is These control towers provlde trafflc control for governed by the location of VORTAC (very high aircraft iocated within a 15-mile radius of the frequency omnl-range rad~o transmitter with alrport. A zone of control involving two airports distance measuring equlpment) navlgat~on is shown in Figure 1-8. Most major control transmitters. and comprises a system of alrways towers have approach control facilities and called Victor Airways. These are designated have air surveillance radar (ASR) which gu~de w~th even numbers when they run In east and a 1 -,.aft to the alrport from a number of specific west dlrectlons. and with odd numbers when pasltlons called fixes. Those are approximately they run north and south. In addition to the 25 miles away from the airport and denote the radio nav~gatlonal a~ds In the aircraft. there ex- point at which the aircraft 1 s transferred to the ists an alr surveillance radar Thls is a radar control tower from the AR ,-'ZC. At these flxes with a range of 200 m~les which is Installed in the aircraft are usually "sta~ked" In a holding certaln control centers aroulid the country and pattern. The airport controller IS responsible for used for tracklng aircraft along an airway orderly regulation of sircraft landlng and takeoff operat~ons on the alrport itself, and tor The Unlted States is dlvided into control positioning aircraft within ~ t s control radius.

areas covering all the en route always, so that each control center can know the positlon of all Navigational Aids (NAVAIDS) These long- en route arcraft wlthln its area Navagational aids ma\: be classified ac- range center radars give the controllers accu- cording to several criteria, such as senslng rate information on azimuth and distance posi- method. frequency. functlon, location, method tion of each aircraft along the airway and thus of use. and others. Since none of these catego- reduce the need for communication betweell ries is definitive, the various Items will be dis- pilot and controller. They also reduce con- cussed separately. Table I-V summarizes the siderably the required distance between radio aids. 32 Direction Finders Comp~led from Natronal Anat~on Syst-m* Plan. Ten Year The first three items of Table I-V are Plan 1973-1982. Department of Transportat~on Federal A v ~ a t ~ o n ~ d - mlnlstrat~on. March 1973 basically rad~o direction finders. The 4utomatlc VFR ALTITUDES/FLIGHT LEVEIS-CONTROLLED AND UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE COUR#S ARE MAGNEnC A b 0 . a 11.000 t& MSI to -.... -.

b l ~ 18.000 h o t Flight Lovol 290 (iml"sivo) Abovo Flight Level 290 0 0 0 . o0 IFR ALTlTUDES/FLIGHT LEVELS--UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE COURSES ARE IlPAGNLTlC At or o b o n 18,000 h o t MSL b l o w 18,000 foot but bdow Fliaht Lmnl 290 At and above Flight b v o l 290 oO o0 o0 180° Source: Airman'r Information Manual, Part 1, May 1975, ppl-23,l-25.

CPUlSlNG ALTITUDE CHART FIGURE 1-7

through the final approval or disapproval of the

Chapter II

required matching funds to meet the Federal grants for airport improvement. Physical con-

GENERAL AVIATIO PI

trol of the airport environment also remains in local hands through their znning jurisdiction,

ENVIRONMENT

constraining ordinances, and through local court decisions. Different areas of regulatory consern are cross-classifi& in Figure 2-1, by General aviation does not exist in a both the level of government and the area of vacuum independent of other influences. It is regulatory concern.

controlled by Congressional action and exten- Legislative and sive mandatory regulation. The system compo- nents interface in compliance ~ i t h statutory Regulatory History provisions and operating rules.

The people of the United States gave Con- Economic factors influence airport admin- gress the right to regulate interstate commerce istration and finance. Vehicle airworthiness fcr the good of the nation. It was natural, certification costs are becoming increasingly therefore, that the first direct implementation of burdensome. Rising costs of nearly all goods aviation control came through the Air Com- and services necessitate close scrutiny of ex- merce Act of 1926.

penditures. General aviation is no exception.

The Air Commerce Act d 1926 Certain groups are taking hard looks at com- This act undertook regulation by licensing petitive modes and travel substitutions, pilots, aircraft, and agencies, and by introduc- especially for intercity and business trips.

ing conditions pertaining to the issuance and Substitution-a change in mobility pat- renewal of appropriate licenses and certifi- terns and communicalive behaviors-may lead cates. These conait~ons included demon- to profound changes in our interaction pat- stration of knowledge and proficiency by pilots a.rd agencies and minimum safety require- terns.

ments relating to aircraft. Compliance with Protection of the environment, such as these rules was made mandatory by the Act, lowering of noise levels, natural resource which also mandated the promotion of air com- depletion prevention, and the preservation of merce and the creation and operation of an air- clean and fresh water are all concerns of ways system. The Bureau of Air Commerce, general aviation.

which was created by the Act, was charged with The following discussion examines some this responsibility and thus became the forerun- of the background, development, and relation- ner of the former Civil Aeronautics Agency ships between and among these issues.

(CAA) and the C i v ~ l Aeronautics Board (CAB) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as we know them today today.

THE REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT Regulatory Scope The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 The four major areas of concern pertaining The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 created the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA) to regu- to the role of government regulation in general late aviation with respect to both safety and aviation are: (1) airports, (2) air agencies, (3) aircraft, and (4) airrren. Some regulation of economics. The 1940 amendment gave the Civil general aviation as weli ds other transportation Aeronautics Board (CAB) the authority for both economic and safety regulation and for deter- and public services is undertaken at every level mination of "probable cause" in aircraft acci- of government.

dents. The safety regulatiorl was to be imple- The Federal Government under its mented by the CAB which was crea!ed by the authority to regulate interstate commerce. has 1940 amendment to the Act.

played an almost exclusively predominant role The 1940 amendment not only gave the in the regulatory control of aircraft and air agencies. Airport regulation, however, has CAB the authority to regulate air carriers by es- been predominantly ~lnder local control. This tablishing fares and authorizing routes, but clearly entrusted the CAA with the respon- situation is rapidly changing as Federal ossis- SI bi llty of promoting air commerce by develop- tance to local alrports increases. States still ing the federal airways system. This respon- play an important role in approving the alloca- tion of Federal airport improvement funds. sibility led to the Federal Airport Act of 1946 and the subsequent Federal Alrport and Airway

ORIGINAZ PAGE I S

OF POOR &u.ALm 60

Development Act of 1970 and the concurrent terstate commerce." Zoning, however, remains Airport and Airway Revenue Act. The latter pro- the chief regulatory arerl open to the states and vided funds for the support of programs initi- many have passed en' sling legislation for local ated under the former. The main sources of zoning laws and atl.riorized condemnation for these funds are airline ticket and aviation fuel airport purposes.

taxes.

The FAA is charged with the responsibility That Federal Aviation Act d 1958 of developing an airport system for the United Following several mid-air collisions in the States. It does so throuyh a National Airport 19501s, Congress passed the Federal Aviation Systems Plan (NASP). Of the approximately Act in order to better define and to isolate air 13,000 landing strips in the country, about 3,040 safety responsibility. Under the Act, C ; A B re- are in the NASP. Inclusion of an airport in the tained economic jurisdiction and the respon- plan provides it with basic eligibility for sibility for determining probable "cause of ac- development funding, given that all other cidents," while FAA acquired the responsibility qualifications are met. Development funds are and authority to promulgate safety regulations. derived from the Airport and Airways Trust Although this system seemed to be functioning Fund created under the 1970 act. The FAA successfully (the domestic air carriers hit a zero reviews the following main requirements as fatality year in i970), Congress placed the con- conditions to application for development fund- trol of air transportation under the jurisdiction ing: (1) submission of an airport master plan, (2) of a newly cleated Departr,ient of Transporta- submission of cost estimates, (3) information tion in that year. regarding the environmental impact of pro- posed improvements, and (4) a clear indication The Department of Traneportation Act of 1970 cf the source and availability of matching This act transferred the responsibility for funds.

the promulgation of safety rules to the Secre- tary of Transportation and established the Na- Funds are then allocated on a priority basis tional Transportation Safety Board which now according to the then existing policy of the ad- determines probable cause of accidents. It also ministration. Upon acceptance of funds, the air- directed that safety r u l x be placed under the port must enter into an agreement to construct jurisdiction of the FAA, leaving the CAB with and operate the airport according to the perti- the responsibilityfor economic regulation of air nent Technical Standard Orders (TSOs), Ad- transportation. viscry Circulars (ACs), and Federal Aviation Regulations FARs) issued by the FAA. Thr Thus, the CAB presently regulates all com- agreement also required public operation of the mon carriage by air inchding route agthoriza- airport and prohibits discrimination.

:ion, fares, and preservation of the financial well-being of the zarriers to assl;re continued Regardless of whether or not federal funds existence and service to the public. FAA regu- are involved, airports serving certificated car- lates aircraft, pilot. and air agency certification Tiers must comply with FAR--Part 139. This and operation as well as airway and airport regulation controls the safety characteristics of development and funding. the airport and facilities, as well as their day-to- day operation.

Airports Most states have passed enabling legis- Several states have stepptd in to fill the lation permitting tneir political cubdivisions to voids in aviation regulation or control in the promulgate zoning ordinances and !o institute area least affected by Federal legislation-the condemnation proceedings for development or airport.

control purposes. Some states also undertake Many states license airporu for commer- to license airports not controlled by the Federal cial reasons, including tax regulation and con- government while others merely license them trol of fees and charges. Ths Federal govern- for commercial or taxing purposes, thereby ment has recently undertaken to license all air avoiding conflict with federal regulations.

carrier airports for safety requirements (FAR States usually exert some control on air- Part 139), and continues to establish minimums port development, through the provision of for safety specifications at 8 1 1 airports accept- matching funds. In some states, such as Con- ing Federal funds for Improvement.

necticut, the entire state airport system is omr- Subdivisions of the states have passed or- ated by the state. In others, the State Avia~ on dinances restricting the use of airports, some of Department exercises varying degrees of con- trol over the approval ot requests for federal which have been upheld by the courts, while others were declared "an undue burden on in- funds.

Although actions in common law nuisance Legal lmplicationr of Airport Planning and trespass seldom succeed, they can and L a d Use become potent weapons against airports that Few types of transportation facilities fail to observe proper operating procedures. In generate more controversy regarding their general, it has been held that, if properly lo- compatibility with neighboring land uses than cated, constructed, and operated, airports are do airports. General aviation airports, particu- not a nuisance unless it can be shown that they larly those accommodating corporate aircraft, in some significant way endanger the health are no exception. As a community's demand for

and safety of neighboring citizens. ' Con-

general aviation services increases in response tiguous property owners must yield their pri- to its populatior! growth and economic vacy to a reasonable degree, so that legitimate develo~ment, the availability of open space in businesses such as airports, which presumably which to construct or operate an airport shrinks contribute to the general welfare, may opelate at an squally rapid rate in response to similar

for the benefit of all. ' Similarly, the operator of

pressures. As a result, hcrneown.jrs living un- an airplane has been held privileged to enter comfortably close to an existing or planned the airspace above land in the possession of facility frequently resort to the courts for protec- another as long as he does so in a "reasona- tion from any actual or anticipated encroach- ble" manner, at such a height as is in confor- ments on their right to use and enjoy their pro- mity w ~ t h legislative requirements, and without perty, regardless of who was there first-the interfering urireasonably with the possessor's airport or the property owner. At the same tlme, enjoyment of the surface and the airspace local officials typically attempt to devise above it. Only when the flights are so low and whatever constitutionally permissible regula- frequent as to be dangerous to the safety of tions are available to minimize this friction bet- landowners or as to substantially interfere with ween the airport and its ne~ghbors. It is their enjoyment of their property will an injunc- thenfore from these two perspectives-that of

tion issue in a nuisacce or trespass action. '

the neighboring homeowners and that of the municipality as a whole-that the airport plan- A more serious problem arises, however.

ner should evaluate the legal implications of where localities have failed to acquire through any land use plan he formulates for a general eminent domain the necessary easements for a v i a t ~ o ~ sirport.

approach lanes over property surrounding Ideally, a community p!anning a new air- public airports. Although the ancient docrrine port should acquire sufficient acreage of land of Cujus est solurr est usque ad coelum ("the surrounding the facility so as to insure that the owner of the soil owns to the heavens") is no airport could In no way interfere w ~ t h ~ t s ne~gh- longer relevant in this moderr -.- 2 of air travel.

boring property owners. By leastng back most and even though the federal Vovernment has of this buffer area to various ~ndustr~es ( w ~ t h the declared itself to be possessed of complete and necessary restrict~ons on use) it could then exclusive national sovere~gnty over airspace reduce some of the acquisition costs and pro- needed for takecffs and landings (49 USC Sec.

vide for future expansion of the airport as well.

15081, courts have nevertheless consistently However, the initial ifivestment cost alone helci that property owners are ent~tled to com- would still make this approach ~mpract~cal for pensation should overflights Interfere substan- many communltles. Moreover, any such at- t~ally with the use and enjoyment of the~r prop- tempt becomes even more difficult if, as in most erty. Of course, no artif~c~al l ~ n e r a y be drawn cases, the airport is already there when the city to determine at wh~ch altitude an overflight or county finally recognizes the need for becomes a "taking." since each case depends regulat~ng adjacent land use. If the airport IS upon the nature of the interference and the kind privately ow,~ed, the local governing board will of use to which the property is be~ng put.

alsc, lack any author~ty to initlate such a plan.

Consequently, many airports todav-both In the lanc'mark case of United States v.

publicly and pr~vately owned-find themselves Caus:y, 328 U.S. 256 (1 946). the Sup:ome Court in the m~dst of time consuming and expenslve held that inverse condemnation or taking had legal tangles with their ne~ghbors. occurred where low and frequent flights by mili- tary a~rcraft over pla~ntiff's property had d~m~nished its value ?* d severely limited ~ t s Thrasher v Atlanta 178 G a 862 But See Swefland v Cur- utility. The court reached a sim~lar dec~s~on in trss Atrporls Corp 55 F 26 201 ' Anderson v Souza 38 Cal ; 2 825 Griggs v. Alegheny County, 369 U.S. 84 (1962).

noting in particular that. in accepting federal ' Reaber v Martfn Theatres o f Flortda lnc . 52 So 24 682 funds for the airport, the county had also ' Vandcrslfce v Shawn. 26 Del Ch 225 inverse condemnation suggest one kind of ap- agreed to acquire all necessary easements therefor. proach to resolving land use conflicts around airports, local planning boards are llkely to However. an ~rcportant distinction has resort to another-zoning. Conceptually, zon- arisen, in the federal courts at least, as to those irlg seeks to segregate incompatible uses into cases where an actual physical invasion of the their own largely homogenous districts, airspace over the property in question has oc- thereby eliminating the friction between certain curred and those where the interference did not users of land. protecting the health and safety involve a direct overflight. Although the former of the general public, and insuring orderly may be compensable as an unconstitutional growth and development of the community. Yet taking, the latter is frequently considered the effectiveness of zoning depends entirely on merely "consequential" damage for which the the forethought of the original planners and the U.S. Constitution provides no remedy Thus, in willingness of administrative officials to strictly Batten v. U.S., 306 F. 2d 580 ('962). the circuit enforce the provisions of the ordinance. The court of appeals denied compensation when checkered histor;. of raning in most states indi- the noise, vibration, and smoke that harassed cates that it has been. in many instances, a less residents was not accompanied by physical in- than successful method r i land use control.

vasion by the Air Force jets of the airspace However, zoning still rer,ains one of the best directly above State courts are spl~t on the tools available today for balancing the rights of Issue of whether an overflight is necessary for individual property owners with the interests of compensation, but many have now rejected the tbe community in orderly land development.

taking,'damqes distinction and considzr in- stead whether the flights are an "unreasmable One of the in~tial steps both in locating the burden" 3n the complaining property owners.

alrport and zonlng the area around it is deter- There ale also a number of other limita- mining the types of use that would be compatl- tlcrls to rcove;). for a taking. By definition, of ble with ~ t s operatian. Schools. hospitals. and course, a takir.1 requires puulic ownership o ; residences appear the least desirable, whereas control of the alrpoe. Even then. if the market open space, agriculture. recreation. and com- value of the property has actually increa~cd mercial and industrial development represent becausc of the airport's proximity. no compen ,he mcst likely possibilltles. Once having iden- sation IS pcrmlssible regardless of tbe noise or tlfied the proper uses. the task then becomes to other annoyances. ' Oependlng on the relevant devlse a large enough buffer zone, particularly stature of limitations. failure to contest an under the approaol lanes. so as to exclude ali encroachment can cause the easement to ripen but these enumerated uses. This kin1 of ex- into a prescriptive right. In some instances.

cluslve distrlct zoning has generally been subsequent buyers . d i n purchase with notice of upheld where authorized by the state enabllng the adjoinirtg irlrport and its flight patterns may statute ano where enacted u n e r a proper exer- be held !o have azsumed the risk of noic;. and cise of the pollce power. That IS. it must be other damage when they purchased their land.

Shawn (as with zonlng in general) that the ordl- Flnally, co~;rts are reluctant to grant ccmpens&- nance bears a substantla1 relationship to :he t~on without a showing of substantial Inter- health, safety. morals. or welfar? of the general Terence with ti IF! use and enjoyment of the prop- public and does not undbly burden a few erty. Flights st altitudes of several thcusand feet cltizens for the benefit of all.

are not likely tc.~ involve an unconstitl~t~onal iak- Se\reral other statutory 01 constitutional inq of prordrty without just cor.-ipensation.

restrictions also must be considered. however While private actlons such as rlrlsance and Mcst enabllng acts require that the zoning ordi- nance arid all arendments thereto be drawn - - ' ' S e e a,. > Bennett v Unrted States 266 ' Supp 627 a ~ i d "in accn;dance with a comprehensive plan Unite. b.dfes v DeOueen and Eas:ern Rarlro3d C o 167 F Supp Th~s requirement has been in!erpreted as Im- 545 3 n e alternative ,5 to % e under the ' 4eral T o n L ! a , , n s 'ict for posing a burden upon the rngnlclpality to study phvs 41 da,vage to prriperty as IP \Vt jiarrr r MgGehee 202 F Sup- 787 ar -i consider all -lorn :n:s :nvofved in the zov- ' T h o r ~ b u r g v Pofl of Ponland 376 P 23 ' v a h a Mar- Ing scheme. including prior eristing dses.

rrr r Pnr! of Seattle 391 P 2d 5*0 topographica! features. aqd so fortn, such that Dick v Unrted States '69 F Supp 491 the final ordinance represents at. 'Integrated ' h i l l Liability for A ~ r ~ r a f t Noise 1% Afterpath ~f Causby , .aduct of a rational process '. ' T ~ I J s . the es.

and Grrggs 190 U Miarn~ L Rev 1 27-X: tablishmsn: or the buffer district ard indeed of R a ! h k o p f The Law of Z o n f o g and Plannrnb ;:d ed Ne* the slrport itself caanot appear haphazard or t o - k 9 a . k Boardnian 7 0 Ltd I 1974 r ecemea, in r616t,-~ t~ rhe rest of the plar 'or Kozesnrcc L M o ' Townshrp 2 4 N J 15J Another type of zoning regulation has also the development of the entire community. l received a mixed reaction in the courts.

The concept of a comprehensive plan Although localities universally are permitted (in becomes especially important if a locality principle) to impose restrictions upon the needs to amend an older ordinance in order to height of buildings, height restrictions around provide the necessary use districts for an air- airports solely to facilitate the use or operation port facility. The amendment must be consis- thereof have more often than not been held to tent with either the previously existing scheme

be an unconstitutional "taking." '' But a

or with one which could be rationalized as a minority of jurisdictions, most notably Florida.

logical extension thewaf, or it must be part of have upheld such ordinancos where the ~ u b l i c an entirely new plan. l 2 Moreover, persons in a benefit of the height restrictions were dcemed previous classification may rightfully rely upon to have outweighed the individual haraships the rule of law that the classification made in lmposed. l o Moreover, most ordinances that the general ordinance will not be changed were ruled invalid invo~ 3d rather servere unless the change is required for the public restriction on use and considerable diminution good. l3 Some jurisdictions (though a minority) in value due to the zoning. l9 The safest method even place the burden of proof on the propo- for a community, of course, would be actually to nents of the amendment to show !hat there was pcquire the easements under the power of emi- some mistake in the original zoning or that the nent domain should the courts there disapprove character of the neighborhood had changed to of airport height zoning.

such an extent that reclassificationought to be made. l 4 Municipalities may also encounter difficulties if they attempt to totally exclude air- One option permitted by some enabling ports through prohibitive zoning. Other com- acts is interim or stop-gap zoning. An interim munities, for example, may hwe statutory ordinance rec!?ssifies land so as either to dis- authority tc condemn land within tha~r courage temporarily its utilization or to permit neighbor's boundaries for use a s an airport only such uses as would not interfere with a regardless of any prohibition in the latter's zon- contemplated plan. The intention is thus to ing ordinance. In regard to excluding private redrict development until such time as a new airports. the test of validity developed by the comprehensive plar? (which would then include courts IS simply whether the prohibition has a the airport and buffer zone) car1 be instituted.

reasonable relation to the health, morals, and The number of non-conforming and vested general welfare of the community in light of the uses can thus be minimized in the critical existing uses and characteristics of land in :he zones. Hcwseer. there is a division of authority various districts into which it has been zoned, as to the consti!utionality of such an ordi- with reasonable forethought for its future nance. l 5 and most courts approving the development. Using this srandard, a number measure emphasize the "reasonableness" of of courts have found insufficient justification the short time lapse involved. l6 for the exclusion in some ordinances of pri- vately owned airports.22 Moratoria on devel-op " Hajeman v. Board 01 Trustees. 20 Oho App 26 12 (?onlng ment in general have encountered similar prob- that mod~fled ex~Dtlng comprehenstve pldn for airport development lems, although temporary restrictions necas- held to be a taking) sary to give the milncipality time to pravlde '' Rathkopf op crt sewer and other facilities have been upheld in : Kennedy v C1.y ot Evanston. 384 Ill 426 Some circumstance^.^^ " WaketreM v Kralr. 96 A.2d 27 "Cofapare Rubrn v McAlevy. 282 N Y S 2 0 5G4 wrth Although obviously no panacea for the Peacock v County 01 Sacramento. 7 7 Sal 9ptr 391 many land use problems involved wi!h alrport " See. e g . Dee1 Gardens. Inc v Board of Trrstees of Loch development, zoning can nevertheless be an 500 (ord~nance In effect for 1-1 2 yean held Arbour. 48 N Y effestive regulatory tooi once its areas of unreasonable) usefulness eve recognized and its constitu- " lard En, neerrng Cow v Newark. 732 N J L 370 tlonal and practical limitations carefully deline- '* Serasora-Msnaree A A v Harrelr; Candy h:;- >en. Ill So 26 439 ated Moreover, although not determinative of '' Peactsk v Counb of Sacramenrc. supra the issue, zoning classifications do Influence S t ~ t e er re1 nc ,. -1, v 8 - r ~ of Cc,, stoners. 37 courts in resolving nuisance and other private Ohlo Ops 58 actions by landowners against airport opera- " Rathkopl op crt tors. Of course, previously existing noncon- " Frrnk v Or!eans Corp . 159 Fla 646. S.enpel v v'randen.

forrnir .q uses and the necessity of variances will 156 Fla 592 always disrupt the uniformity zoning seeks to " GoMetr c Plennrnp E d 01 Townshrp of Rarnapo. 30 oJY & \ ,A promots. but they need not undern;ire the over- all scheme. For it is only through comprehen- airlines to assure their ability to continue ren- sive planning that a general aviation airport and dering the service to the public.

its neighbors can peacefully coexist.

These carriers must also obtain an FAA operating certificate before they can com-

Air Agencies

mence exercising the authority granted to them Air agencies are subject to federal by the CAB. The FAA regulates every phase of economic control through the CAB and safety air carrier operation through the use of ap- and operation control through the FAA Air car- p r ~ v e d manuals and extensive operating

riers engaged in interstate commerce as com-

regulations. Regulations, manuals, and opera- mon carriers usually require a Certificate of tion specifications prescribe departmental Conventence and Necessity which is issued by organizations; allocation of responsibility; the CAB. In addition, all carriers are reql~ired to aircraft and equipment; maintenance organiza- obtain operating certificates from the FAA. The tion and procedures; flight operations, training names of those certificates vary according to

and proficiency check procedures; as well as

the function authorized. Some common carriers many other details relating directly or indirectly are exempt from CAB certification, and would to safety.

thus fall in the general aviation category.

Suppkmental air carriers provide suppte- Some air agency certificates ralate to mental seats during peak demand periods.

ground operations only. Examples are ground They are limited, in that they may solicit affinity schools, aircraft maintenance stations, service groups or tour charters only, and may not oper- and repair stations, and others. Each must meet ate on a scheduled basis W e e n points.

certain minimum requirements in equipment, All Cargo carriers may operate as personnel. and general facilities.

scheduled or non-scheduled and may "hold out Most prominent are the air-agencies in- to the public" for cargo carrying purposes only.

volved irl transporting "persons or property. . .

Thev *cay. with special authorization, carry for compnsation or hire,'' and further, !hose

lim't r . ssengers on a charter basis. In con-

designated as air carriers which meet the trast. iommercial Operators o i Large Arcraft further distinction "as a common carrier." all may not hold out to the public at all. They oper- defined in the Federal Aviation Act of 1958.

ats oy contract only and with a limited namber The classifications are somewhat complex of different users. If the number of users and in some ins.ances overlapping. but are also becomes sufficiently high (9 or 10). they are exacting for the purpose of regulatory jurisdic- deemed to be holding out to the public and re- tion. Figure 2-2 summarizes the characteristics quired to obtain a supplemental carrier's certifi- of the different types of aviation activities dis- cate.

cussed below.

Schedule4 carriers. supplernentals. all International, domesrc trunk, and local cargo and commercinl operators operate under service air carriers are similar and overlappir~g the appropriate sections of Part 121 of the in regulatory characteristics. The main distinc- FARs. They all operate, or are authorized to tion is in their area of service. International car- operate, a~rcraft having certificated gross riers obviously function across international takeoff weight in excess of 12.500 pounds.

boundaries; domestic trunk carriers serve Air Taxi and Commercial Operators of route.. genaralfy within the U.S. with average Small Aircraft (ATCO) are considered to be stage lengths of between 700 and 900 miles carriers engaged in air transportation when (797 miles in 1973). Most domestic trunk car- penormlng air taxi services, but are deemed to riers also coriduct internationsl operations.

be merely engaged in air commerce when act- Local service carriers operate over routes of ing as a small commercial operator involved In average stage length of between 250 and 350 contrac' flying. The two types of service were miles (303 miles in 1973). 2' These three types of combined in one csrti ficate for convenience.

air carriers are regulated by the CAB which: (1) since they are both exempt from certification by issues certificates of public convenience and the CAB under section 298 of the Board's necessi'y; (2) designates routes to be served; economic regulations. The exemption is pledi- (3) designates type of sewlce authorized; (4) cated on their use of small aircraft. on the theo- sets ratzs and fares to be charged; (51 ieqbires ry that their possible Impact on interstate com- extensive statistical and financ~al repc.r;s; and merce is limited, and thus does not, at this time, (6) looks dfter the financial well-being of require re~ulation in the public interest.

- for cortiparison purposes anscheduled air " Air Transpori :974. Facts and F~yures (klr Transp t l As-%- rlatlcn of Amertca. Weshtngton. C C ) p 21 taxis Carl best be compared to supplementa!

X X O X X X O X -

s '

X X X X O O X

3: X

..

X X X X X X X X X O X Q) U L L Z E x X X X X X X X X X X

s

U carriers, while wheduled air taxi operators intrzstate air transportation.

known as "commuters" are similar to the Airworthiness scheduled air carriers. The distinction lies in Qesponaibility for assuring the airworthi- the size of the aircraft operated. Exemptions ness of aircraft and their components is b-sently cover all operators using aircraft with assumed by the federal government on the a maximum certificated gross weight of 12.500 theory that aircraft are instruments of interstate pounds or a carrying capacity of 30 passengers commerce. As with airmen and agencies, the or less with a gross payload not exceeding responsibility is discharged by writing regula- 7.500 pounds. The Board has indicated a tions setting minimum safety standards for the limited i;lclination to grant waivers to permit characteristics of the product, prescribing cer- A T m s to operate aircraft in excess of these tification requirements and procedures, and limi!ations upon the presentation of proper evi- setting limits on operations.

dence showing public need and convenience; ATCOs operate under the regulations con- In figure 2-1 the Federal Aviation Regula- tained in Part 135 of the FARs, under close tions bearing directly on the characteristics of supervision of FAA inspectors. as do the large the product are Parts 23 through 3 5 . known col- carriers under Part 121. lectively as the Airworth~ness Regulations; Part 36. concerning noise; Part 37, concerning cer- Helicopter Operators have been involved tain components; and, Part 39, concerning in all phases of the above air agency descrip- mandatory actions to increase specific product tions with the exception of trunk line opera- airworthiness. Parts 91 through 135 cover cer- tions. Their certificates and regulations (Part tification andlor operations, and Part 21 sets 127) differ with respect only to givirig proper forth the procedures for certification. Parts 91, acknowledgement of the unique char:~cteristics 121, and 135 influence the design charac- of rotary-wing aircraft.

teristics of aircraft. as well as operations.

1n:rastate Air Carriers do not !all within the Philosophy jurisdtciion of the CAB since they are not, by The Federal Aviation Administration IS definition, engaged directly in interstate air charged with promoting the safety of aviation.

transportation. They are, however, indirectly The following zre the gersral concepts ob- engaged in interstate air transportation by served explicitly or implicitly in writing regula- carrying goods and persons who are in the tions which help discharge their responsibility course of interstate commerce, in prssumably in regard to airworthiness: sifficient volume to justify CAB regulation, if the Board chooses to do so. These carriers (1) The FAA takes no view of "mission operate large aircraft as the certificatedcarriers performance." The top speed, range, and carry- do. For the most part, the states have attempted ing capacity can be anything the airframe to fill this regulatory void through the regula- manufacturer chooses. the takeoff and landing tion of intrastate carriers by state public utilities field length requiremeqts can be selected by commission or other equivalent agencies. the mmuracturer, and so on.

Some states are ako attempting 10 regulate (2) Certain items of performance, scheduled air taxi 3perators on the grounds however, do impinge directly on the safety of that a regulatory vo~d has been created by the fl'ght. For these items the Administrator will set CAB.

what are considered to be minimum safe Whether or not the courts will decree the values, writing these into the reg~lations, either exemption process implemented by the CAB to as definite ncnbers or as algebraic expres- be a sufficient abdication of its regulatory sions utilizing parameters whlch are them- responsibility to leave a void justifying state in- selves set by the manufacturer, are prescribed, tervention is still to be seen. Preliminary court or are representative of an observable or decisions seem to indicate a tendency to idealized environmeqt.

preserve federal control. The fact that the (3) As far as is practicable, the FAA sets federal government elected to grant exemp- standards on what an airplane muat do, rather tions is construed to be an affirmative assertion than on what it is. An airplane when stalled of its control in that area of interstate air must pitch down, for example, and within cer- transportation. The courts are likely to recog- tain limits it is known how to configure it so that nize this posture in view of its long-stqnding it will do so. The FAA will not prescribe the con- unchallenged acceptance.

figuration, but contents itwif by Implying that a There are currently no attempts or, the part full stall is characterized by uncontrollable of local governments to regulate interstate or pitch down.

there may be other "public interest" type points (4) On the other hand, prior art is recog- nized as having given the airplane certain in support to be made instead, but the fact re- definitive configuration and pertormance mains that the provisions of Part 25 are more characteristics-it has wings. a tail, one of a detailed than those of Pa* 23.

small number of engine types, and so on; the Content cockpit controls and instrumentation are all of The Federal Airworthiness Regulations familiar sorts. When in order to set a standard of place definite technological constraints on safety it is necessary to refer to such items, the what the manufacturers do. Below, for illustra- FAA does not hesitate to do so. It prescribes the tion, is a condensed outline of the contents of location of the primary flight instruments on the Part 25; other airworthiness regulations are panel. the shapes of some of the control knobs.

similar: the positions, angles of visibility, and color and

Subpart A - General

brightness of the red, green, and white position

Subpart 6 - Flight

lights, and so on.

Performance (5) Maintenance of an acceptable level of Stability, Control. Trim and safety demands that the entire process of Stalls fabrication be monitored and controlled. The Ground an6 Water Handling regulations, therefore, cover every aspect from Characteristics the properties of materials chosen through to

Subpart C - Structure

the manufacturer's production certificate and Flight, Ground and Water the certificates held by the opewtor and his in- Loads dividual employees.

Fatigue Evaluatior!

(6; The regulations are the product of Lightning Protection many years of experiences which have served

Subpart D - Design and Construction

to indicate what an airplane should (and should Systems. Control Surfaces.

not) do and be to be safe. To assure that those Landing Gear experiences are utilized, the regulations are Accommodations updated continually.

Environmental (7) The regulat'ons are intended to be as Emergency, Fire Protection explicit zT possible. The words "each" and

Subpart E - Powerplant

"mua" appear time after time to insure that the Fuel, Oil, Cooling, Reduc- manufacturer has no doubt about t-,e extent tion and Exhaust Systems and degree of his responsibility.

Controls and Accessories (8) There an implicit recognition.

Fire Protection however, cf the fact that there are limits to what

Subpart F - Equipment

can be done and still keep the airplane a viable Instruments transportation device. The rsgulations sur- Lights rounding the structur?l design for example, do Sa'ety not prescribe the high safety factors often seen Miscellaneous in the design of ground structures. Instead, the

Subpart G - Operating Limitations and

loads to De applied to the structure in the Information course of normal flying are estimated as ac- Limitations curately as can be done, and the structural Marking and Placards components are designed to resist these loads Airplane Flight Manual while developing almost the highest stresses they can without failing, thus producing an Appendices airframe of minimum weight.

Certification of Aircraft and Components (9) There is also an implicit assumption The following means of obtaining a~proval that knowledge of the degree of risk somehow for aeronautical equipment exist: permits that degree to be higher. The argument (1) Type Certificate: airframe, its engine, goes that passengers on an air-carrier airplane and its propeller are Type Certificated.

deserve greater protection than do those of a (2) Technical Standard Order: A compo- general aviation airplane. since the transport nent which has been "TSO'd" may be installed passengers presumably are unable to assess on any airplane for which it is suited, without the risk thzy are assuming when they board, separate approval.

while the general aviation passengers somehow are able to do so. The logic of this is elusive and (3) Approval: A new component may be tested and approved for instaliation an a new a series of arguments between the manufac- airplane receiving its Type Certificate. This turer's representatives and those of tire respon- meets the regulatory requirement for the si ble FAA Regional office, and frequently those aircraft that certain items of its equipment be of the FAA in Washington. Proposals are made "approved." Howevor, unless the component is by both sides and discussed in committees. The subsequently "TSO'd" it is not in general eligi- result is usually a compromise of some sort, ble for use on another airplane, since in theory because in the last analysis the FAA will not it is part of the airplane that was Type Certifi- regulate the new type out of existence since the cated. manufacturer has legal recourse.

Changing Airworthiness Regulations The basic regulations can also be "clarified" by the issuance of Advisory Circu- There are three means by which Airworthi- lars. The Advisory Circulars can be commen- ness regulations may be augmented, altered, or taries on anything at all, but when used for this adapted to specific occasions: purpose they will specify what tests or criteria (1) Amedments are actual changes in can be applisd to meet the provisions of the the body of the regulations. They are typically basic regulation. The typical language is: promulgated by the FAA itself in response to "This circu!ar sets forth a means, but what appears to be a need being experierlced no! the only means, whereby com- by the entire manufacturing industry. The FAA follows the standard procedure In fvhich pliance w~th FAR 25 Par. 25.xxx may be demonstrated.'' Notices of Proposed Rille Making ("NPRM's") are published in the Federal Register (soms- Since the manufacturer desires clarity in times "Advance NPRM's" are circulated), co:- the regulations with which he must comply, he respondence invited, and a date and place for is very likely to standardize on what is set forth public hearings set. Anyoqe interested can re- in the Circular, thereby in effect (though not in spond, b u ~ ti? practice those who do so are law) making it a part of the regulation.

mostly the manufacturers who will be affected by the proposed 9tange. At the close of the Demonstrating Compliance hearings the FAA sets forth, again in the Unlike criminal law, wherein the burden of Federal Register, a summary of the comments procf is on the accuser, in many regulatory received, FAA's conclusions with regard to areas the burden is on the manufacturer ac- them, and the exact wording of the regulatory tively to demonstrate his compliance with the change. The subscribers to the applicable provisions of the regulations. This applies to regulation receive Notices of Amendment, with the Federal Aviation Regulations, and in air- publication and effectiveness dates, plus worthiness work it is reasonable and economical revised pages for the regulation itse:f. The of time and effort. The manufacturer developing Notlce of Amsndment again summarizes the a new type airplane is assumed normally to reasons '?r it and !rle industry response, for have the facilities and equipment for background reference. demonstrating the airworthiness of his product.

The FAA in t u ~ n is relieved of the necessity of (2) Special Regulations are similar to spending public m o n q for large amounts of Amendments in general handling, but do not complex equipment. aitk2:lgh it does h a ~ e affect the basic Airworthiness regulations since somesmall items such as phototheodolites their applicability is limited. For example. CAR and trailing airspeed bombs-which it will lend 4 (the predecessor of FAR Part 25) was ~ound to or bail to the manufacturer.

be inadequate in dealing with the determination of the takeoff field length requirements of tur- The process of demonstrating compliance bine airplanes. Special regulations were is conti~lual throuqhout the development therefore written. program. The evidence that the demonstrations have been made !akes the forms of: (3) Special Conditions are a concession to the f ~ c t that manufacturers will (contrary to (1) Drawings of the aircraft and its parts, a some ycople's opinions) pustl the frontiers of complete set of which must be submitted to the the design art forward. and will produce FAA Regional Office. The demonstration deslgns of t\lpes with which the existing regula- airplanes, or components therecf which aie tions slmply cannot deal. Nevertheless the FAA used to demonstrate compliance, must be cer- must in some way approve the safety of a new tificated by the manufacturer to be "in comfor- product by amending the basic regulation for mity with the type design" of which the draw- that product only. ings are representations.

Special conditions are established through (2) Reports of analyses and tests. An ex- Legal Status of Regulations anple of analytical reports is the "Basic Until a very few years ago, the issuance of Loads" report, which sets forth the computa- the aircraft type certificate, manufacturer's pro- tions of the external aerodynamic, ground and water loads generated on the aircraft in opera- duction certificate. and airworthiness certifi- cates for individual airplanes was sufficient to tion. A typical tsst report is that of a structural lay to rest any questions of airworthiness aris- test of a component. Conformity statements ing from incidents or accidents. However, re- must be written for each tested component, and cent product liability cases are destroying the all analyses and tests must be witnessed and protection afforded by the regulative structure, signed by a representative of the FAA.

in a few cases revealing unsuspected flaws.

In mbst cases the means of demonstrating Contributory negligence of the operator is no compliznce are well known and used country- longer a defense for the manufacturer, nor is wide. 1;i cases where they are not, they must be the existence of type certificate, current air- decided by negotiation, which the manufac- worthiness certificate, or any other documen- turer initiates by writing proposals for the tary evidence. "Reasonable care" in design or demonstra!ion methods.

manufacture is collapsing. and the "implied guarantee" of the manufacturer in marketing Airworthiness Directives the aircraft is interpreted quite all-inclusively.

The FAA keeps watch over the condition of individual aircraft of every type. It can extract An illustrativecase (rather an extreme one) portions of aircraft log books to show where ad- is that in which a twin-engined airplane ditional inspections, modifications or parts suffered an engine stoppage on takeoff, after replacements need to be made because of in- having made a high-speedtaxiing turn onto the adequacies in design which can be shown only active runway. It was shown by tests that if the when the type aircraft has been in operation speed were high enough and the turn short and developed "bugsu--cracks in structure, enough the fuel line from a tank would unport.

possibilities for faulty system operation, fre- causing a loss of fuel supply and subsequent quent system failures. The manufacturer keeps engine stoppage. High speed turns onto the watch too, through his Customer Service runway just prior to takeoff are considered Department, and whenever such a defect ap- foolhardy by the aviation community and are pears. an evaluation is made of the various not generally practiced; the certification pro- means of eliminating it. This results in the is- cedures normally do not contain tests of this suance of Service Bulletins'inviting the owners nature, and the manufacturer had performed to take action, sometimes accompanied by none. This did not protect the manufacturer.

r~trofit kits to help with the job.

however.

As long as the manufacturer keeps ahead The tl.end of such cases is to put on the of the situation the FAA will take no action. If he manufacturer the burden of making his product does not in any particular case, the FAA will both airworthy and foolproof. Since there is a issue an Airworthiness Directive (AD) which large, if not limitlsss, nurrbei o! ways to get in prescribes the action to be taken, gives the trouble witn an airplane, as well as to attack the constructor numbers of the affected aircraft. credibility of the manufacturer in court, these and sets the deadline for accomplishment i f ap- product liab~lity suits are becoming a burden to plicable. An AD can prescribe anything irom manufacturers, and the eventuai 6' C ~ S will be more frequent inspect~ons to grcunding the to make the process of aircraft development type until the prov~sions of the AD are complied slow and overexpensive, and the price of the with. Manufacturers are typically alert to and product everl higher than it is now.

anxious about defects which may lead to AD'S, especially on airplanes in current or recent pro- Operation duction. and are usually reasonably quick to forestall an issuance by publishing servlce United States civil a~rcraft operated w~thin bulletins. sending out retrofit kits. and issuing the bordew of the country, and air carriers eng~neering changes for production. The FAA operated botn within the Ghited States and in knows thls, and in any case which can result in international commerce, da s : , under the provi- an AD. it informs the manufacturer ahead of sions of the General Operating and Flight Rules time in order to allow him to take action on his (FAR Part 91) or the Certification an3 Opera- own. This system ma/ sound too permissive. tions reyulations for air carriers and commer- but I r . practice it work:; well. though of course. cial operators of large aircraft (FAR Part 12:) Air Taxi operators are under a separate regula- not perfectly The rarity ol aircraft acc~dents on (FAR Part 135).

due to hardware fa~lure attests to this.

Part 91 has no material pertaining to cer- equipment in the airworthiness regulations. For examole, a manufacturer can certificate an tification. The sections dealing with operations, however, have much in common. To display airplane without supplemental oxygen equip- both the certification and the operation content, ment under Part 25, and that Part will tell him the topics dealt with in FAR 121 are presented what the tecnnical requirements for a supple- below in condensed form: mental oxygen system are. But the actual re- quirement for such a system is spelled out

Subpart A - General

under Part 121.

Subparts 6, C, D - Certification Rules for

(2) The Airworthiness Regulations are Air Carriers not concerned with the range of the aircraft, so

Subparts E, F - Approval of Routes

they make no statement about total fuel

Subpart G - Manual Requirements

capacity. But the operating rules are con-

Subpart H - Aircraft Requirements cerned with it, and the concern is expressed as

a fuel requirement in this typical form (91.23):

Subpart I - Airplane Performance

No person may operate a civil aircraft in Operating Limitations IFR conditions unless it carries enough Takeoff fuel. . .to: Weight (a) complete the flight to the first airport En route of intended landing; Destination (b) fly from that airport to the alternate

Subparts J. K - Special Airworthiness, In-

airport; and, strument and Equipment (c) fly thereafter for 45 minutes at nor- Requirements mal cruising speed.

Subpart L - Maintenance

(Some qualifying statements follow the

Subparts M, N, 0. P - Airman, Crewmem- statement above.)

ber, and Dispatcher (3) Part 91, i n a section for large Qualifications and Train- airplanes, and Part 121, prescribe the composi- ing Requirements tion of the flight crew.

Subparts Q, R, S - Flight Time Limita-

(4) Part 121 makes provisions for limiting tions (Personnel) the weight of an aircraft at takeoff and landing.

Sibpart T - Flight Operations The provision for landing dates that no person

shall take off an airplane, if its weight on arrival

Subpart U - Dispatching and Flight

at its destination will be more than the weight Release Rules allow in^ it to stop within the first 60 percent of

Subpart V - Records and Reports

the runway. The takeoff weight provisions are

Subpart W - Crewmember Certificate, In-

more complicated.

ternational The effect of these rules is simply that the There are several Appendices.

manufacturer looks in both directions when generating a new design. !Vhen the provisions of both regulations impact in the same area, such as those for takeoff, the manufacturer in-

Interaction of Airworthiness and

cludes in the Airplane Flight Manual-an air- 0 perating Regulations worthiness document-such operating infor- As mentioned earlier, the FAA takes no matirn as will enable the pilot to comply with position on performance except as it relate; to both regulations simultaneously. The so-called safety. The Airworthiness regulations are the FAR takeoff field length charts (which are ac- device by which tha FAA seeks to insure safety tually weight-limit determination means) are in design and constructicn. However, the FAA examples of the technique.

also seeks to insure safety in operations, and to The fuel reserve provision and the equip- this end they write !he Certificationand Operat- ment provision are met by establishing the ing Regulations. These have their impact on airplane weight and fuel capacity at which the aircraft design (particularly or! trle design of desired range may be ~rret, considering the large commercial aircrr~ft) in the following reserves and extra equipment as dead weight.

ways: The same is done with the flight crew require- (1) A certificatea air carrier cannot oper- ments: the additic? of a flight attendant require- ate his aircraft unless he carrias on board cer- ment simply increases the weight and seating tain items which are not items of required capacity of the airplane.

the kind of traini;rg received when a student is Comment placed in the hands of an individual certified Some persons have been critical of the Air- flight instructor.

worthiness regulations from the viewpoint that Flight certifications are issued at 5 levels: they stifle the design proceLs. They cite the 61 (1) student, (2) private, (3) commercial !required knot stalling speed of Part 23 as a prime il- of any pilot who receives compensation for fly- lustration, and perhaps go on to other things, ing), (4) airline transport. and (5) flight instruc- such as the requirement that an airplane pitch tor.

down when it stalls, and so forth.

Since the bulk of the nation's general avia- It should be pointed out in this record that lion fliers are either students, or hold private or there are two means of "bending" the regula- commercial licenses, this discussion will be tions to accommodate advanced designs: (1) limited to those certificate levels.

Special Conditions and (2) Demonstrations of "Equivalent Safety." When a manufacturer Within dach certificate level there are three feels that his product cannot meet a provision differeni kinds of ratings which an individual of the regulations as written, he may demon- must receive in order to fly. For a student, rat- strate that the airplane is just as safe with what ings are added by his flight instructor, while it can do. Equivalent safety demonstrations can holders of Private and Commercial certificates be expensive and long-drawn out, because have ratings added by the FAA or by the FAA's safety levels are hard to rank-order.

designated examiner. The three kinds of rat- ings are: (a) category ratings, (b) class ratings, It should be remembered that regulations and (c) type ratings.

are the equivalent of case law-they reflect what has been done wrong in the past. Since A category rating deals with the kind of the future pres.lmably will be different and the aircraft and is for either: (1) lighter than air mistakes different, the regulations can apply (balloons), (2) gliders, (3) airplanes, or (4) only to present art-not to future art. If airplanes rotorcraft (helicopters).

are always built within the regulations, they will Within the category rating "Airplanes" always be built within the present art or very (above) there are four class ratings: (1) single minor extensi~ns of it. But the art as actually engine, land planes: (2) single engine.

practiced will progress in some direction, and seaplanes; (3) multi-engine, land planes; and the future will generate its own regulations re- (4) multi-engine, seaplat-,as.

sponding to what is done wrong then. Mean- whiie the present regulations prevent us from Type ratings apply to any turbo-jet repeating our past mistakes, and the means of powered aircraft and to all airplanes over 12,500 pounds takeoff weight. An individual bending them to the demands of the future are wishing to fly a light jet airplane or a plane tliere.

heavier than 12,500 pounds must have a rating Pilot Qualifications for that particular aircraft; however, a person and Certification who wishes to fly any model of light plane may The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 placed do so with a private pilot's license provided he the responsibility of certifying pilots, airplanes, haye proper class and category ratings de- flight schools, ground personnel, etc., with the scribed above and that he flies alone. To carry Federal Aviation Administration. The FAA passengers, the regulations become more de- meets this responsibility by establishing and manding; he must have made 3 takeoffs and publishing the requirements for certification in landings within the last 90 days.

a series of directives or mandates called In addition to the above ratings, there is a Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) which are special rating which must be azhieved to fly on revised and updated from time to time. The FAA instruments. Table 11-1 sets out age. medical.

also issues licenses to individuals, the basic knowledge, skills, and experience require- authorizations to fly an airplane.

ments for a private pilot's certificats t s desig- nated by FARs of October 1, 1974. In p,;lctica, Two sections oi the Federal Aviation Regulations (Part 61 and Part 141) deal with the the average student obtaining a priva?,~ pilot requirements for certification of pilots. A per- license under FAR 61 receives about 65 total son ?:!empting to qualify for a private pilot's flight hours extended over a period of approx- certification may do so by satisfying either set imately one year while the student certifying of requirements. Part 141 deals with the kind of under FAR 141 in a concentrated study at a training received when a student is enrolled in flight school usually totals about 55 hours fly- a cert~fied flight school while Part 61 deals with ing time in a shorter time.

TABLE I 1 - I

FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS FOR CERTIFICATION AS A

PRN ATE PILOT, AIRPLANE CATEGORY1

Minimum Age 17 years old Medical Examination minimum: 3rd class medical certificate 1. FARs applicable to private pilots 2. VFR navigation 3. Recognitionof critical weather conditions 4. Safe and efficient operation of airplanes Proficiency 1. Preflight operations 2. Airport and Traffic Pattern c perations 3. Flight Maneuvering, Grourd Reference 4. Slow Speed Fiight 5. Normai and Crosswind take-offs and landings 6. Instrument Control and Maneuvering 7. Cross-country Dead Reckoningand Radio Navigation 8. Maximum performancetake-offs and landicgs 9. Night flying, VFR conditions 10. Emergency operations Experience: Total Flight hours Dual hours 20 Solo or Pilot in 20 (including 3 solo take-offs and landings at airports with Command hours a control tower) Solo Cross Country hours 10 (each flight must be more than 50 nautical miles with 1 fligth with landings at 3 points each at least 100 miles from others) Dual Cross Country hours 3 Instrument Flight hours 10 Night Flight hours (local) 3 (including 10 take-offs and landings) ' Tabled entrles are for FAR Part 61 except as noted FAR Part 141 requlres 8 nours 45 r ~ n u t e s of ground dlscuss~ons (br~ef~ngs and ee-br~ef~ngs 'FAR Part 141 requlres 35 hours of total fl~ghl tlme ' FAR Part 141 requlres 5 hours of cross-country solo fl~ght ttme Although certificates never expire, to use commercial flight operations, FAA observers are spread out too thin in practice to moaitor them (i.e., to fly), a pilot is required to have a the bulk of private pilot behavior.Thus, the FAA physical examination periodically depending upon the level of his certification. For example, is a relatively weak enforcer i~ general aviation.

private pilots are required to have physical ex- Most monitoring is done by the pilots them- aminations every 2 years, commercial pilots ev- selves and peer pressure is an effective en- forcer. When a violation is reported to the FAA, ery yea,, and airline transport pilots every 6 that agency usually writ+s to the pilot involved months.

stating that he may have been in violation and FAR 91 deals with operating rules. In theo- asking for his statement. The pilot may support ry, a pilot's certificate may be removed for his behavior or he may confess to the violation violatian of these regulations or with violation and surrender his pilot's certification for of tho certification rules in Part 61. Because the suspension up to one year. Commercial pilots highest priority of the FAA revolves around found in violation of FAR regulations are fre- tion. Thus, a small air carrier airport may have a similar administrative structure and the same quently given civil penalities such as fines.

number of employees as does a large general - - aviation airpoi, ifthey both have approximately AIRPORT ADMINISTRATION the same number of operations. An airport's AND FINANCE lsvel of activity seems also to be related to the level of government owning and operating the Introduction facility. The higher the level of government, the larger the airport tends to be.

Airport administration and finance are highly interdependent.The governmental level Owners and Sponsors of the sponsor of the airport, e.g., federal, state, Inasmuch as the size of an airport deter- or local, bean heavily on both the structure of mines the governmental level of sponsorship, the administration and the financing the size of the political subdivision may also be possibilities of airports. The two subjects will a significant factor limiting the size of the air- be treatad separately below, but with necessary port. This is especially true since capital expen- cross referencing.

ditures for improvements are limited by the total Man] airpcrts in the United States grew assessed valuation of the taxing authority in- from grass strips, privately owned, on what was volved. However, airports are frequently owned then the edge of town. Population growth by towns located near large metropolitan areas brought traffic, revenue, and increased local and may draw substantial traffic from the demand for airport facilities. This demand was population hub. Such airports may generate originally based as much on civic pride as on sufficient surplus funds to support capital im- economic feasibility. The airport was con- provements independent of tax support. It is sidered to be a governmental function, and not thus difficult to generalize a relationship bet- expected to break-even and certainly not make ween the sizes of airports and the political sub- a profit. Local citizens in the communities with divisions they serve.

sufficient wealth voted approval of bond issues Many cities own and sponsor airports, to origina!e and improve small airports.

which are thus financially supported by public Some communities, not so well endowed, funds raised mainly !hrough property taxes.

came intc a windfall when the Surplus Airports This may frequently lead to problems of conflict Act authorized the transfer of World War II mili- of opinion as to need for airport improvements.

tary training fields to local communities. Many I n large cities, such as Baltimore or which would not otherwise have been able to Philadelphia, where the more affluent have afford an airport suddenly owned me. Assisted moved to the suburbs, the remaining popula- to some extent by the airport, the loss sustained tion may see little need for frequent use of cn in operations was minimized and the local airport. In fact some may never expect to see it, taxes made up the difference.

and therefore alrite naturallv are not interested The depression, although it set all develop- in approving c i h bond issues to support airport ment back to a large extent. provided another improvements. In some instances this has led w~ndfall to p~;blic airports through the Works to state ownership of the airpcits. State owner- Project Administration (WPA). This "make ship, as it now exists in Baltimore and has ex- work" program expended millions of dollars on isted in Connecticut for some time, has the ad- airport improven lent and construction.

vaqtage of spreading the tax investment over a much larger base. It also enhances the prob- The Federal Airport Act of 1546 authorized ability of obtaining matching funds to qualify expenditure of up to $100 million anfiually over for federal grants for airport impro vements.

seven years on eligible projects at local air- ports. This Act was replacea with the more ex- Aside from the question of desirability, tensive Airport and Airways Development Act of locally owned airports are usually operated by 1970, providing considerably more funds and locally oriented political bodies such as town eas~ng the financial problems of airports to boards, city councils, and boards of super- snme extent.

visors. Frequently the airport serves a much larger community and airport needs are not Administration necessarily consistent with the desires of the The classification of airports by function citizens of the community in which it is located.

was discussed in the previous chapter. The ad- In fact, quite frequently the opposite is true- ministrative structure of an airport is, however, everyone wants the airport in someorte else's more dependent on its size than it is on its func- backyard. Since the local governing body will be depe~dent on local support, it may be more communities have overcome this problem by responsive to the local sympathies than to the appointing s combined manager and FBO, thus needs for airport improvemerit. If, on the other providing a salary or partial salary only, yet per- hand, the airport is owned by the state, the state mitting the manager to receive the proceeds of representatives from the local airport com- the normal FBO functions. At a new very small munity may oppose or support improvements airport, the revenue is seldom sufficient to sup- according to the dictates of the local electorate. port a fixed base operator so this model might This could occur without adequate considera- be the only alternative to sponsoring an unat- tion of whether or not the improvement is tended airport.

needed for the benefit of the larger community It is usually necessary for the small or the entire state. The opposite might also municipally operated airport to depend on hold, and a diversified state leg~slature may not various municipal departments for support be responsive to local airport needs. State functions such as runway maintenance., lawn aeronautics departments usually tend to sup- mowing, snow removal, and legal aid. These port airport development and keep the airports might also have to depend on air traffic legislature appropriately informed to assure control facilities at nearby airports, because proper attention to the overall state airport they usually have either unmanned towers or no system.

towers at all.

Where an airport's community of interest (2) Many medium-to-large size general extends over several political subdivisions, aviation airports generate sufficient rever,ue to each subdivision may have its say in the airport niake the employment of an airport manager operation through 3n independent authority as feasible and still leave adequate revenue for an expressed by its representatives who are ap- FBO. Such airports often have l~mited local air pointed to the airport board. The authority may carrier service, and are thus able to afford a own t1.e airport or merely operate it. It may also limited staff.

have t~axing authority for airport development (3) Large arrports, both air carrier and purposes, sometimes with limited time spans general aviation, have professional a~rport and almost always with a ceiling placed on the managers with staffs of specialists in such percentage of total assessed valuations. The areas as operations, administration, and main- authority may also enjoy political indepen- tenance. The tenants of such airports usually dence, as is the case with state operared air- include FBOs who bid for rental rights and for ports. This may result in its becoming insensi- the right to serve aviation needs at the fields.

tive to the desires cf the local community.

Many FBOs at that level are highly specialized This code of sponsorship is frequently and provide a single service such as fuel, flight instruction, or avionics maintenance.

desirable from the tenants' point of view, especially since the total revenue is retained by (4) The airport authoriry approach usually the authority and generally expended for airport involves an administratwe structfpre sim~lar to purposes only. While some of these revenues that of a municipally operated f, :ility, with an may be spent on such facilities as roads.

in-house staff for handling specialized func- bridges, subways, or even office buildings, this tions.

is often preferred to the possible loss of

Finance

revenue to the general funds of a city's, town's.

county's, or state's. At most airports operated Because airports are commonly operated by municipal or county governments all airport by public bodies they are often not conceived of revsnuss must by law be paid to the general as monopolies. This, however, is true since the government fund, and thus made available for user has little choice in selecting an airport appropriation for non-airport functio~~s by the once he has chosen his ultimate destination.

local governing body. This often tends to frus- General aviation and scheduled air carrier trate efforts at airport improvements.

pilots are usually captive clients. who do not have the choice to taxi down the street to The determination of who will operate zn another gas station where the fuel might be ' func- airport is dependent on both its size cheaper, except in some instances of preferen- tion. Generally there are four .najor tial refueling.

poss~b~ lities: Monopolies are normaily regulated to pre- (1) At very small airports there is fre- vent abuses in the levels of rates and services.

quently insuff icier, t revenue to generate funds While the market has h~storically been in the to cover an airport manager's salary and an tn- buyers' favor, many alrports are presently ser'j- come for a fixed base operator (FBO). Some costs. None of the funds are diverted to other ing more than or close to the volume of traffic governmental use. Surplus revenue (profit), necessary for an economically feasible opera- although inconsistent with the true break-even tion. With this financial maturity come both the model, if invested in airport capital improve- opportunity for innovations in airport finance, and the necessity for governmental regulation, ments does not disqualify the airport from this classification. The reinvestment of surplus as witnessed by the introduction of airport cer- revenue in capital improvements, tends to be tification through FAR Part 139. Although treated as prepayment of, or payments in lieu restricted in its applicability to airports served by certificated air carriers, it was the first exer- of, future amortization.

cise of major governmental control beyond It seervs that tenants and users are not dis- prescribing prerequisites to obtaining fderal turbed by ieasonable surplus generated by the funds and grants for airport development. In ad- fees they pay, so long as they are comforted dition, regulation necessitated by essential with the knowledge that the surplus will be security measures added to the momentum "plowed back" into the airport.

toward the federal t~gulation of airports. Will Dulles International Airport, operated by the authority to approve rates and charges for the FAA, is a good example of the break-even rentals and landing fees be among the future concept. Airline "use agreements" or leases areas of control as a result of this momentum?

break down the original payoff period into three It appears that the authority is indeed present 10-year spans. The first is an operating loss and re( ognized by the FAA as is clear from its period, the second a braak-even, and the third requirement that airports charge only reasona- is a profit period where the initial losses are ble and non-discriminatins fees.

recovergd.

Models of Airport Finance This approach is extremely well adapted to There are four common models on which the ability of users to pay the required fees.

airport financial policy can be based. These Traffic builds up with time and the base over afe: ( I ) the general benefit model, (2) the break- which the charges must be spread is constantly even model, (3) the public utility model, and (4) increasing. It is therefore possible to have in- the industrial model.

creasing gross revenues without appreciable rate increases. Rate increases would only be The general benefit model applies to small necessary in orde: to accommodate rises in aiipoots and is thus perhaps the most common.

costs associated with the provision of services These airports do not generate sufficient which cannot be covered by increased revenue to cover their operating costs and the revenues.

debt service on improvements (or depreciation if the improvements are already paid for). This The public utility model is most frequently situation requires partial funding from the proposed by those communities which own political subdivision sbonsoring the airport.

successful airports in highly popu;;cied areas The subsidy is justified on tnc basis of the need drawing their revenue from diversely origi- for supporting public facilities from which all nating passengers. The profit is therefore at citizens derive either a direct or indirect benefit.

least r:artially from residents of other com- The social and economic benefit of airports to munities. Under this model the airport sponsor communities by way of creating employment is assured of generating sufficient revenues to and promoting commerce and tourism have meet ths airport's operating costs, debt service, been suggested in a number of studies and will and/or depreciation, and to generate an accep- be the subject of other parts of this report.

table fair rate of return on his investment, simi- The break-even model is the most widely lar to the situation in other public utilities. It accepted by both airport operators, users, and must be observed, however, that other public utilities are both recognized and regulated as governmental bodies. In this model the airport is expected to generate sufficient revenues to monopolies. As such their rates, efficiency, per- cover the costs of ~perations and amortization formance, and accounting procedures are sub- and/or depreciat.on, as appropriate. ject to scrutiny and review. This is presently not the case with airports, bu. the possibility for At this point th6 "single cash register" air- taking such action in the future exists.

port or the airport with an independent finan- The industrial model which allows airports cial structure, warrants some discussion. Under to generate profits in the same sense that in- this concept all revenue is retained in a fund dustry does, has not r~\ceived wide acceptance separate from other governmental accounts, It is not appealing to most airport operators and all revenue is applied to the cost of opera- because they recognize the public role of air- tions, amortization of debt, or other airport port service; they prefer the assured income ap- cess of the particular project and on the credit proach that avoids the highly fluctuating in- of the parties obligating rental or royalty dustrial return. and do not care to undertakethe revenue by lease or contract.

more complicated financing procedures Build and lease back agmmmb may be necessary to accommodate wide fluctuation in used either as pledge revenue to support profit and loss. Most do not want to give up the revenue bond issues or against mortgages on comfort of assured income not available to the facilities constructedfor a particular tenant. For purely market-oriented operation.

example. an FBO may want hangar space at an Airport Bonding and Sources of Capital airport and may be willing to sign a twenty-year Airport bonds are usually municipal bonds lease. The airport may borrow the money, and take the same familiar forms: general pledging the lease proceeds as a security, and obligation bonds or full faith and credit bonds; granting conditional possession to the lending and revenue bonds. The latter fall in two institution if the proposed tenant defaults. The g%,eral categories: bonds supported by the institution may then sublease the facility to revenue of the airport only, and special purpose another tenant. thus continuing the revenJe bonds issued against a single segment or func- flow till the expiration of the debt.

tion of the airport's revenue.

Ranks and other lending institutions have General obligation bonds are bonds historically avoided financing tenant construc- issued against the general obligation of the tion at airports because the title to the land is community issuing the bond. In other words vested in the airport sponsor. The tenant merely they pledge the full faith and credit of the city, has a leasehold. In the event of default and sub- town, or state issuing them. Since the israting sequent foreclosure, the bank has only the

body has authority to levy taxes on local c ~ p -

leasehold as security, most leaseholdsbeing of erty to provide amortization funds. the bonds the non-assignable or extremely restricted are generally csnsidered a good risk by finan- type. They do not present a readily marketable cial institutions. The tax free interest also acts privilege and are therefore not the most desira- as an additional incentive to those wishing to ble security.

invest in them.

Increasing sophistication of many of the Most political jurisdictions are, however, medium and large airport sponsors has led to limited in the total amount of bone, they can the design of lease clauses containing clearly issue, relatitre to the total assessed valuation of defined limitations on the assignment or attach- real property in the community. Because many ment of the leasehold, while simultaneously citizens, towns, and counties have already leaving sufficient flexibility to permit a lending reached the limits of their authority to tax. and institution to replace the tenant with an since many are in poor financial condition equivalent tenant for the remainder of the term.

because of the exoous to the suburbs, some Because of the financial distress of many city-owned airport bonds no longer enjoy their cities today and the reluctance of others to previous appeal.

devote scarce capital to projects with restricted Because general obligation bonds usually benefit, many projects such as hangar con- require the voters' consent as expressed in a struction, cargo facility construction, and fuel referendum, airport operators and sponsors distribution facilities are being financed In this often turn to revenue bonds in order to avoid a manner.

defeat at the polls. Revenue bonds pledge the Government Assistance revenue of the airport against their amortiza- Most people are oi the impression that the tion. Naturally the rates are higher on revenue federal aid programs provide the bulk of the bonds, but they still enjoy t:ie tax-free benefit of funds necessary for airport development. They municipal bonds and enjoy considerable are also of the impression that the general tax- popularity with financial institutions.

payers' money goes into the fund. Neither con- Special purpose bonds are frequently cept is accurate.

issued by airport sponsors to construct specific Under the previous Federal Airport Act of projects such as cargo facilities, fuel facilities.

1946, funding for airport improvements was or hangars. The special bonds may in that case derived from airline tax and other aviation be issued against the revenue from that specific sources. These taxes were, however, paid into project only. The popularity of these bonds is the general fund and were not actually ear- somewhat less than that of the other types for marked for airport or airways improvements.

obvious reasons. The success of such a bond The Airport and Airways Development Act issue is more dependent on the probable suc- of 1970 incorporated many of the features of the traffic generated by the improvement.

previous act but also introduced many innova- The act was permitted to expire on July 1, tions. The concurrent legislation, the Airport 1975. As this document went to p m , Con- and Airway Development Act of 1970 provided gressional committees were studying the the funds to carry out the propamd develop possibility of extending the act and expanding ment. Taxes were imposedon airline passenger the list of eligible projects to include public fares. airline freight or cargo waybills, aviation areas of terminals such as waiting rooms, lob- fuel and related products. aircraft registration, bies. corridors. concourses and hold rooms, etc. Thus the c o s t of development was brought people-movers. baggage claiming devices. and home to the user as directed in the act. As pro- many others logically related to accommodat- tection for the user against the diversion of ing the passenger who is the main source of Ute funds extracted from his contribution, the trust funds. The percentage of federal participation fund concept was imposed and the use of the under the expired act was 50 percent of eligible funds restricted.

projects at large hub airports. 75 percent at The development of the airways system. smaller airports. and 82 percent for certification which was previously supported from general or security. The percentage limitations are also government fvlnds. became eligible for receiv- undergoing review. The case of 90 percent federal participation in interstate highway ing $250 million per year for the five-year dura- tion of the act. facilities is frequently cited to support the argu- ment for changing this formula.

Airport planning is of course essential to sourcet of Revenue tire orderly development of the national aviation s;stem. Therefore. $2 million were designated The successful offering of revenue bonds for developing a National Airport Systems Plan is dependent on demonstrating the availability (NASP) and provision was made for making in- of sources of revenue with a high degree of cer- tainty in order to assure sufficient cash flow to dividual grants to airports for master planning their own development consistent with the role amortize the debt. Airports look primarily to assigned to them by the NASP. airlines, concessions. and general aviation fees, in that order, to generate that revenue. As The funds made available for airport can be seen, strictly general aviation airports development are divided into two main catego- are hard-pressed to produce revenue with the ries: air carrier airports and general aviation certainty necessary for revenue bond funding.

airports. The former are to receive $310 million Whereas the airline must serve the airport and per year (by 1573 amendment) and the latter are is somewhat a captive tenant and user, general allocated $30 million per year.

aviation aircraft may or may not fly. when and One-third of the funds is allocated on a where they choose. By their nature, they are not statewide basis considering both the popula- subject to contractual obligations to assure tion and area of the state. Another third is allo- funds.

cated nn the basis of enplaned airline The airlines negotiate ieases and use- passengers, which represents the main source agreements with the airports they serve. The of the revenue constituting the fund. The rest is leases usually provide for set rates of square- left to the discretion vf the administration.

feet rentals to cover such areas as private General aviation has a similar allocation with offices, ticket counter space, baggage make-up different percentage distribut~ons.

space and many other areas too numerous to The restrictions on eligible projects are mention. Most accept the policy of rentals for numerous. The airport must be in the NASP.

exclusive use areas in terminals, but some dis- The project itsclf must be completed according pute still rages regarding the extraction of rent- to FAA specifications. Another signifcant als for areas not under the exclusive control of restriction is that stipulated by section 20 (b) of the airlines.

the act, which prohibits the use of the funds for The rates and charges are generally any building used for other than safety pur- negotiated and ar- thus acceptable to both par- poses such as crash and fire facilities. This pro- ties, even if reluctantly so. Nevertheless, as a vision prohibits the expenditure on needed resu It of the airport's monopoly, the airlines hangars, terminal facilities, roads. and other really have no choice to reject rates and fees re- public facilities on the airport. The recognized quired by the airport. The airport has the rule of thumb in the industry states that for ev- authority to establish the rates and charges by ery dollar spent on eligible projects an equal ordinance without the consent of the airlines.

amount will eventually be required on the ter- One must then ask if federal regulation of minal side to accommodate the additional many others such as barbers, drug stores, gift this monopolistic ratesetting capability would shops. and taxi and bus stands.

not be consistent with the anti-trust philosophy of our government. Some feel such affirmative The general rule of thumb is to estimate regulation is necessary while others feel that future income from concessions on the basis of the carriers' protection is provided for: a per passenger average income of $1 to $2.

(1) in fact that without the signature of the This source, at large hub airports, frequently airline on lease agreements the airport's ability accounts for over 50 percent of the gross to issue revenue bonds is greatly reduced; revenue and at others is the most significant single factor. Unfortunately at the small general (2) in the fact that upon acceptance of aviation airport there is insufficient passenger federal funds for improvement, the airport must flow to generate adequate returns.

enter a "grant agreement" with the FAA which prohibits charging unreasonable or dis- In addition to landing fees, fuel flow criminating b, and.

charges. and percentage of gross on aviation service. such as repairs and maintenance.

(3) in the fact that generally the airline some general aviation elements pay square- agreements to a break-even philosophy obli- foot rentals. Corporate based aircraft usually gate the airlines sewing the airport to review generate demand for office space and fre- and adjust their landing fees annually so as to quently lounge space as well. Many airports are assure a loss-free operation of the airport.

solely general aviation and yet are profitable.

The greatest area of dispute centers The volume of revenue may well be there, but around proposed improvements to be amor- because of its relative uncertainty, it is difficult t i z ~ j as part of the costs underwritten by the to rely on it as a basis for long-term financing.

carriers. The carriers frequently believe that the Additional financial benefits for the airport improvements may be unnecessary, excessive may be reaped if the sponsor retains the land or, too extravagant. Several airports are pres- surrounding the airport and promotes the ently in court with the airlines over disputes development of an industrial park in the area.

concerning the reasonablenessof the rates and The "build and lease back" arrangements can fees. Recent economic conditions have made be profitable here, and the airport can benefit the airlines more cost conscious and less likely by an appreciation in the land value.

to accept unnecessary improvementsor expan- sion. It is frequently difficult to tell whether an airport is or is not generating surplus revenue, The landing fees charged to both airlines or to make meaningful comparisons of airport and general aviation are usualiy based on the fiscal policies. This is due to the lack of stan- maximum gross certificated landing weight of dardization in airport accounting systems. All the aircraft, regardless of the actual weight on efforts by the federal government, the Air landing. They range from a few cents per thou- Transport Association (ATA), and others have sand at smaller airports to over $1 per thousand failed to establish an acceptable standard ac- ai some large hubs. The airlines and general counting procedure for airports. The reasons aviation frequently pay fuel flow charges of set do not necessarily stem from the desire of the rates per gallon of enplaned fuel. Airports have airport to hide its financial status, nor from a also generally imposed security charges on the refusal to cooperate. The problem is a deriva- airlines to help cover the cost of additional im- tive from the more general problem resulting provementsand operating costs occasioned by from the fact that each town, city, council, or in- federal requirements relating to security dependently created authority. has by law, cer- measures on airports. The CAB allowed the tain prescribed accounting procedures to airlines temporary fare surcharges to meet this which it must conform. These vary by state and contingency, so the cost has been passed on to by locality within the state. This is compounded the user.

by the demands made by bond indenture agree- Two categories d concessions usually ments and other special situations.

cover the concession revenues at an airport; Conclusion aeronautically related and public supported The large hub airport is generally capable concessions. Aeronautical concessions in- of supporting its own improvements and of clude a percentage of gross FSO contracts; functioning on a break-even basis. Airport fuel flow charges; aircraft parking fees; mainte- sponsors proposing the public utility model for nance fees; clearing or turn-around fees, etc.

airport financing usually meet with formidable P u b l i c support concessions include oppos~tion from airlines and the federal govern- restaurants at 10 percent to 25 percent of gross; ment. The break-even model therefore seems auto parking at 25 percent to 95 percent; and likely to prevail and the trend toward indepen- (CEQ). This statement must include the follow- dent authorities will most likely continue.

ing: Medium and small hub airports will con- (1) The environmental impact of the tinue their stnrggle uphill to fiscal indepen- proposed action; dence. More realistic federal airport support (2) Any adverse environmentai effects policies should help these airports become which cannot be avoided should more independent of the local tax base.

the proposal be implemented; The small general aviation airport appears (3) Alternatives to the proposedaction; to be most vulnerable in the temporary economic set back and is likely to suffer most in (4) The relationship between local short-term uses of man's environ- the cost conscious era to follow. Unless it is lo- cated in a hub area which is sewed by air car- ment and the maintenance and rier (not necessarily at the same airport), the enhancement, of long-term produc- tivity; and, airport has little chance of becoming self-sup porting and must depend upon continued local (5) Any irreversible and irretrievable

tax subsidy. Such airports are becoming less

commitments of resources which likely candidates for public support as the would be involved in the proposed population perceives a diminished opportunity action should it be implemented. 2s to use them. Since their revenues are minimal.

the possibilities for successful bonding are low.

The environmental impact statement Their continued success will depend on a should consider ecological factors including realistic evaluation of community need and on (1) noise pollution; (2) air quality; (3) water the use of cost conscious approaches in both quality; (4) fish and wildlife; (5) solid waste; (6) capital planning and daily operational policies.

energy supply and natural resources develop rnent: and, (7) protection of environmentally cri- tical areas such as floodplains, wetlands,

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

beaches, dunes, unstable soils, steep slopes.

and aquifer recharge areas.

Introduction

This section will discuss environmental Noise pollution, air quality, water quality, legislation affecting airports and the more com- and land use around jeneral aviation airports mon environmental effects resulting from air- are important partsof tne physical environment.

port construction, with special emphasis on The planning and construction of public general aviation airports. The discussion will facilities such as general aviation airports focus on the regulation of noise, pollution, and should be guided by a desire to achieve the water quality.

highest possible level of social benefits, with a

Environmental Legislation

minimum expenditure of human, physical. eco- nomic, and environmental resources. Large Environmental legislation which has scale physical facilities are usually accom- emerged within the last five or six years may eventually influence the utilization of general panied by undersirable environmental side- aviation airports. One of the primary objectives effects.

of the Noise Control Act of 1972 (Public Law In an attempt to minimize possible environ- 92-574) is to control noise from aircraft and mental damage resulting from major public un- aircraft operations. The FAA is authorized to dertakings, the National Erivironmental Policy develop regulations to control aircraft noise

Act of 1969 (Public Law 91 - 1 Qtl) was enacted to

emissions, as well as to impose curfews, flight require that for any project which involves ma- path modifications, or other procedures jor Federal funding, and which significantly deemed necessary to protect the public.

affects the quality of the human environment, Among the states with environmental regula- an environmental impact statement must be tions, the State of California has establishad filed with the Council on Environmental Quality state-wide controls for noise around airports. 26 Airport authorities may also control noise: the Port of New York Authority imposes noise stan- " P. I . . 191 - 190 T~tle I. Sec 101, pt C.

dards on the airlines and operators who use its Howard. George P. (Ed ) Airport Economic Planning airports. ~7 The right of the operator to control (Cambridge the Mlf Presa, 1974). P. 425 noise through the imposition of a curfew has " Ibid.. p. 806 been upheld in the California courts. 28 But at n Sragg v Municipal Ct. of Santa Monica. 82 Cal. Rptr 578 (1-1. least one decision severely limited the power of noise by different federal ag,rrtcies are de- a local government to control noise, in cases scribed.

where it does own or operate the airport. 2* This may be an example of the limited control that a Noiw scal.8 community would have over a private airport or The basic measure of sound level is the possibly an airport just beyond its political decibel (dB) which is defined as a sound-pres- boundary.

sure level equal to 20 loglo (PPo) where P is

? h e level of a given sound and Po is an arbitrary

The 1970 Amendments to the Clean Air Act mund-pressure level usually taken to be 0.WO2 (Public Law 91-804) include provision for

dyneslcm. " The decibel is generally con-

regional transportation controls. Under the sidered to be a poor measure of annoyance and supervision of the Environmental Protection reaction to noise because the human ear per- Agency, states are to develop a comprehensive

ceives higher fir quency sounds as being

air quality policy which includes land use plan- louder than lower frequency. For this reason, ning and air and surface transportation con- three other scales have been developed. These trols. The regional controls will undoubtedly can be summarized as follows: work to reduce automotive traffic-the major source of air pollution-and as such increase

(1) Measuranmnl by - . utilizing the

the demand for general aviation.

A-Scale sound level, [ dB(A)] , (a measurement The Federal Aviation Administration that r e f l e d loudness by filtering lower fre- affects communities which seek federal funds quencies and weighting higher ones), more in acqu~ring a general aviation airport. Federal closely approximates the response of the airport safety regulations can be fairly costly to human ear, or "loudness." The dB(a) scale has the community. If an airport seeks federal funds the advantage of being objective, but does not for expansion under the Airport and Airway take into account the duration of the sound as Development Act of 1970, it must submit an En- some of the other scales described below. The vironmental Impact Statement. s' No project has dB(A) scale is used in FAR Part 36F which an adverse effect upon the environment will be regulates the noise level of small propeller- authorized if there is a feasible alwmative. 32 driven aircraft.

On the other hand. the FAA does not tax ~~ ~- general aviation for the total cost of its use of (2) Computation of rerponre t o a dngle the airway system, and thus cost savings may exposure: Scales in this category are among be passed on to the community using the the most important because they are the ones general aviation services. used to measure and comoute noise levels generated by jet aircraft for the purpose of

Aviation Noise

regulation and certification. They include the Noise can be defined subjectively as any Perceived Noise Level (PNdB), which is a unwanted or undesirable sound, or a sound measurement of the noise level of maximum which conveys n9 information or which inter- itensity during a flyover of an aircraft at feres with information transmission. Response specified altitude and engine power, and ac- to aircraft noise is dependent upon a number of counts for the amplitude, frequency, and direc- factors including sound level, weather, time of tion of the sound. Another measure in the day, and numerous human factors. The purpose category is the Effective Perceived Noise Level of this section is to evaluate the noise effects of (EPNdB), which is subjectively adjusted for per- general aviation. To do this, noise and noise ceived noise. It accounts for absolute noise response measuring scales and forecasting level, noise spectrum, maximum tone, and methods are described and attempts to regulate noise duration. Basically it is intendedto reflect

perceived noise as determined by human reac-

I* Lockheed Air Terminal v. City of Burbank. 4 1 1 U S 624 1 2 tion, and is used in FAR Part 36 which regulates AVI 17.889 (May 14.1973) the noise level of jet aircraft.

* Stan of the House Committee on Interstate and Fore~gn

Commerce. 93rd Cong . l s l Sess . Transportation Controls Under

(3) Computation of response to multiple the Clean Alr Act (Comm Prlnt No 10, 1 9 7 3 ) . p 52 expo8ure: The measurement and prediction of " Llttle. Arthur 0.. Inc et al.. Civil Aviation Development: A public response to aircraft noise involves more Policy and Operations AnaMsis (New York. Praeger Publishers.

1972). p 188 complex factors than those considered in the Ibrd.. p 188 scales discussed. Operational procedures, Warlord. Jeremy J . Public Policy Toward General Avie- aircraft types, environmental conditions, and tion (Washington. 0.C: Brooklngs lnstltute. 1971), p 66 people are highly variable. This makes the pre-

Dickermn. 0. 0.. a t a/.. ads . Transportation Noise Pollu-

diction of annoyance and complaint levels a tion: Ccitrol and Abatement NASA-ASEE Summer Faculty Fellow- sh~p Program In Engineering Systems Design. 1970, p. 14.

complex matter. The following facets of an-

TABLE 1 1 4 1

CHART FOR ESTlMATlNQ RESPONSE OF RESIDENTIAL

COMMUNITIES FROM COMPOSITE

NOISE RATING

Compo$ito Noiw Rating (CNR): Takeoffs and

Landings Zone Dascriptlon d Expected Response

Less than 100 1 Essentially no complaints would 5e expected. The noise may, however, interfereoccasionally with certain activities of the residents.

100 to 115 2 Individuals may complain, perhaps vigorously. Concerted group action is possible.

Greater than 115 3 Individual reactions would likely include repeated, vigorous complaints Concerned group action might be expected.

Source: CLM/Systems. Inc., Airports and Their Environment: A Guide to Environmental Planning.

(U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 1972), p.97.

noyance and complaint have been determined: complaint are primarily physi- callsociological. 3s (1) Estimation of annoyance using noise exposure as the sole predic- Techniques in common use for predicting tor is rather poor.

public response to the impact of noise ex- posure and for use in land-planning are the (2) The inclusion with noise exposure Composite Noise Rating (CNR) and Noise Ex- of certain attitudinal or psychologi- posure Forecast (NEF). Recently, the F.dera1 cal variables affords good predic- Aviation Administration has developed the tion of individual annoyance.

Aircraft Sound Description System (ASDS).

(3) An equation can be written for pre- The CNR method, which was developed in dicting individual annoyance with 1952, is based on PNdB or EPNdB and the good accuracy.

following factors: (4) Within certain limits the number of (1) The average noise level spectrum; highly annoyed households in a (2) Discrete frequency components- community may be estimated from presence or absence; the number of complaints.

(3) Nature of sounds--impulse or non- (5) An equation for predicting com- impulse; plaints among a random sample, (4) Sound repetition; similar to the predictive equation (5) Ambient noise level; for annoyance, can be written, but (6) Time of day of the noise; and, its accuracy is questionable.

(7) Adjustment for previous exposure (6) There is a substantial difference of the community to the noise. 38 between predictors of annoyance Expected response zones have been suggested and predictor8 of :omplaint: pre- as shown in Table 11-11.

dictors of annoyance are primarily The NEF method involves the use of physicallattitudinal; predictors of EPNdB, and attempts to forecast community

resoonse bv incorkratina such factors as ab-

" Tracor. Inc . Community Reaction to Airport Nolse. Yo/. 1 1

80("te levis: noise iwctrum, n&se dura-

(NASA CR-1781. Washington. 1971). p 223 tion, maximum tone, aircraft type, mix of

I* Bolt. Beranck, and Newman. Inc . Noise Exposure

Forecasts: Evclluarion, Extensions ena Lend Use lnterpretatlons number runway (FAA. Washlngton. 1970).

tion, flight pattern, operating procedures, and TABLE 11-111 COMPARISON BETWEEN CNR AND NEF VALUES CNR NEF Takeoffs a d Landings Runups Less than 100 Less than 80 Less than 30

100 - 115 80 -95 30 - 40

More than 115 More than 95 More than 40 Source: CLMtSystems, Inc., Airpcrrts and Their Environment: A Guide to EnvironmentalPlanning.

(U.S.Dept. of Transportation, Washington, 1972), p. 99.

TABLE ll-lV ASDS 8SdB(A) CONTOUR TABLES FOR SELECTED AIRCRAFT* Down Range Ai rcratt Cumulative Airplane Distance Altitude Contour Area Model (Feet) (Feet) (ACT-) C-340 2400 0 34 C-340 4418 426 70 C-340 7899 434 1 34 6-707 7497 0 420 8-707 8702 134 495 8-707 6473 134 369 8-747 4733 0 256 8-747 5598 134 309 Learjet 500(i 0 209 Learjet 6146 188 265 Jet Commander 4500 0 176 Jet Commander 5217 116 207 Jet Commander 5585 176 224 Gulf Stream II 5500 0 278 Gulf Stream II 5665 26 286 Gulf Stream II 6217 116 31 8 Gulf Stream II 6585 176 340 Jet Star 5500 0 215 Jet Star 5665 26 22 1 Jet Star 6585 176 263 *Data from: Donald Goldman and Francis X. Maginnis, Aircraft Sound Description System (ASDS) Application Procedures, Vol. 1 1 1 , Data Tables (Department of Transportation, FAA- EA-74-2, Ill, Washington, D.C. 1972).

time of day. Table II-Ill provides a comparison Several variables have been identified and between the CNR and NEF Scales.

appear to be correlated with annoyance and complaint. In one study the annoyance varia- The Aircraft Sound Description System bles were: fear of crash, noise suscegability, (ASDS) is based on the amount of time that distance from airport, adaptability, air traffic noise levels exceed 85dB(A). It has the advan- volume, belief in misfeasance, importance of tage of having no subjective correction factors airport, and CNR. The predictive variables for which reflect community response to aircraft complaint were: CNR, pollution annoyance, noise. This method is applied by using one or disturbance of weekday hours, discussion of more scenarios which reflect variation in run- noise, disturbance of weekend hours, mobility, way length, air traffic, time of day, or opera- ethnicity, size of household, occupation, tional procedures. ASDS values are easier to organizational involvement, misfeasance, fear calculate than those of the previous two of crash, age, visitation, renthouse cost, and methods.

distance from the airport. 3e General Aviation Noise With the possible exception of business There are ample data available on the jets, general aviation activity around airports noise effects of air carrier aircraft at airports, causes few noise problems; especially if such but much less information is available on movements are mixed with comm.a:cial activity.

general aviation vehicles and facilities. There At an exclusively general aviation airport, there are several reports which give the noise levels may be noise annoyance, but usually the prob- of general aviation aircraft, but no studies have lem is much less than at air carrier facilities.

been completed which illustrate CNR, NEF, or ASDS contours for a general aviation airport.

Air Quality Noise levels of propeller driven and jet pro- Aircraft air pollution first caused public pelled general aviation aircraft are presented in concern it, the 1950's when the turbine-engine Figure 2-3. This figure shows a line designating was first introduced. The airplane produced noise levels allowable in accordance with FAR visible exhausts which had a more noticeable Part 36. As can be seen, a number of presently small than that of earlier aircraft. Combined available aircaraft are not in compliance with with the greater visibility of the airplane in the these regulations. Not enough data are availa- public eye, it resulted in an i~cieasing amount ble to compile such a figure for business jets.

of public complaint.

Although business jets are generally noisier, Major pollutants caused by aviation are the FAR Part 36 allows them a higher noise carbon monoxide, nitrooen oxides, non- level.

methane hydrocarbons, pariiculate matter, and Table Il-IV shows the area contained within sulfur dioxide. 40 Section 231 of the Clean Air the 85dB(A) contour for several aircraft at Amendments of 1970 called for the Environ- variol~s stages of takeoff. Landing figures are mental Protection Agency to study emissions of not given, because they are smaller than takeoff air pollutants from aircraft to determine: (1) the figures. As one might expect, propeller driven extent to which such emissions affect air planes do have the least effect, followed by quality in air quality control regions throughout business jets and the commercial carriers, in the United States, and (2) the technical that order.

feasibility of controlling such emissions.

Prediction of annoyance and complaint Section 231 further reqdired that the En- from aviation noise, and specifically general vironmental Protection Agency (EPA) establish aviation noise, is difficult because of the sub- emission standards for aircraft 'engines that jective factors which must be considered.

cause or contribute to air pollution endanger- Mathematical models for the prediction of an- ing public health or welfare. The EPA was also noyance and complaint levels are available, but required to provide a schedule for the imple- their predictive accuracy is questionable.

mentation of these standards, based on a reasonable cost of compliance and on available technology.

'' Goldman 6 and F X Mawnn~s Arrcrall Sourtd Descnp lion System (ASDS) Apphcetron Procedures. Vol I-IV (FAA- Carbon monoxide (CO) results from the in- €A-74-2. Wlsh~nglon. 1974) complete combustion of hydracarbon fuels. It is '' lbrd colorless, ordorless, and is absorbed in the '* Tracor. Inc . Cornmunrty Reeclrofi lo Arrport No~se. Vol I lungs where i t reacts with hemoglobin, thus im- (NASA CR-1761. Wash~ngton 0 C 1970) Chapter 6 pairing the ability of red boood cells to 'O Platt. M and E K Bastress The Impact of A~rcraff Emrs- transport oxygen.

srons Upon Arr Qualrry ( S A E . New York. 1972). pp 42-55 Beech Queen Air Beech Booch FAR Port

0 R.1.T urbo Canmander

Cosma P ~ P U Arrow OPipor Aztec (3 Beach King Air Cossna I82 Cossna I72

0 Single Englno

twin Engine AIRCRAFT GROSS WEIGHT IN THOUSANDS OF POUNDS Source: Noise Certification Rule for Propeller Driven Small Airplanes (U. S. Environmental Prdection Agency, Project Report, Washington, D. C.

19741, P 11-1-11- 31.

NOISE LEVELS FOR PROPELLER DRIVEN SMALL AIRPLANES AT MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS POWER FIGURE 2 3 Nitric Oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide lems is much more effective than attempting to (NO2) are formed by all combustion processes solve them after the fact. The problem of water in the Earth's atmosphere. The effects of NO, if with high concentrations of petroleum resulting any, are unknown. Even low levels of NOp, from servicing airplanes, for example, is solved however, can cause respiratoiy problems and best by designing the system to separate foul chronic lung disease. wa!er from other water. Proper airport construc- tion procedures can prevent erosion and sedi- Non-methane hydrocarbons are photo- mentation problems.

chemically reactive; non-methane hydrocar- bons produced by aircraft engine combustion The major factors which contribute to and unburned fuel components produce water pollution are: physical, construction several oxidants, primarily ozone, when ex- practices, facility operations, and induced posed tc sunlight.

development. Airport construction usually in- volves paving runways, taxiways, and roads, as Solid or liquid material (smaller than 500 ~-~e11 as building construction. This construction microns) which is dispersed in the air is called -?laces the natural surfaces which allow in- particulate matter. Most of the particulate mat- flitration with impermeable surfaces, with a ter from airplanes is carbon and free sulfur. In resulting increase in surface water runoff and a high concentrations, particulate matter may in- decrease in the amount of time for the runoff.

jure the surfaces of the respiratory system.

This situation creates large peak flows during Sulfur dioxide (Sop) is produced by com- short time spans, and increases the potential bustion of sulfur-bearing hydrocarbons. The risks and dangers of flooding.

concentration of SO2 in aircraft exhaust is less The ground surface serves as the ground- than that for automobiles, because aviation fuel is rela!ively low in sulfur impurities. SO2 can water recharge area. If the surface is sealed by have a number of adverse effects on health, the impermeable surfaces, the effect will be to lower the water table.

most important of which is respiratory damage.

The only major study involving both air car- Retnoval of nhtural cover during construc- rier and general aviation airports showed that tion can lead to great increases in erosion and non-methane hydrocarbons and carb:)n sedimentation if proper construction practices monoxide levels exceeded national ambient air are not foliowed. An increase in sediment quality standards at some air carrier airports. At volumes of 5,000 percent, for example, has general aviation airports, however, these levcls been reported in situations where there was did not exceed ambient standards, although the unregulated stripping without any provision for amount of lead approached a potentially sediment control. Sediment load increases harmful level. can lead to flooding problems due to filling in lakes and streams. They also can cause General aviation aircraft and airports do degradation of the biologic environment not appear to be as si~nificant a ceusa of air because of light filtering and change in sub- pollution as are automobiles. No instances strate type.

have been found where concentrations of pollutants exceeded ths national air auality This pollution p . blem covers water used standards at general aviation airports. 42 in any part of the lacility operation such as maintenance, air conditioning, fire protection, Water Quality and asociated Industrial development. Much of Water pollution is a potential problem dur- this water picks up waste before it is returned to ing both the construction and operation of an the system. The approach to dealing with these airport. Anticipation and prevention of prob- problems is not unlike that of a municipal waste treatment plant except that the water is more contaminated by oil and fuel in the airport area.

" Ibtd Induced development may cause some im- Los Angeles County Air Pollut~on Control D~str~ct. Study portant problems in waste control. The three of Jet Alrcrall Emist~ons and Alr Qualify In the Vlcln~ly of Los Angeles Internef~onel A~rporl (Loe Angeles APCD. Apr~l. 1971 ). p main factuts to be considered are: (1) water body capacity; (2) water supply and solid waste " CLMISystems Inc Arrports and Therr Env~ronmnts. A disposal; and (3) power source and new indus- Guide to Envrronmentrl Plenntng ( U S Depl of Transportat~on.

Wash~ngton. D C . 1972). p 18 try. '=

" Schmidt. M E . Env~rorlmenlel Effectsol H~ghweys. (Jour- General aviation airports, because of their nal of Sanltery Engineering Div~s~on. A S C E , Vol 93. No SAS.

smaller size should cause fewer water prob- 1967, pp 17-26

CLMISyetems. Inc op crt . p 265 lems than air carrier airports. The impact of

each airport on water quality degradation has upon his outputs." a Telecommunications ap- l o be evaluated individually. Factors to be con- pears to have frequent application as a sidered include: rainfall (amount and frequen- reasonable and cheap substitute for travel.

cy). topography, stream proximity, stream sue Modes alternetive to general aviation and and capacity. aquifer recharge areas, soil and the wbstltutability of telecommunications tech- rock types and permeability, plant cover, and nology in lieu of intercity travel will be reviewed surrounding land use.

in this section.

Modal Choice AND TRAVEL SUBSTITUTES Transportation modes to be considered in this analysis are those which offer competition with general aviation for both passenger and jriority freight. General aviation includes both Mobility. contemporarily considered as n fifth freedom. has become an accepted. and public and private transportation, the former consisting of air taxis and commuter service; often demanded. product of the American way.

the latter, all other categories.

A lifestyle and a value stliucture founded in Westward expansion today holds freedom of Highway, railway, and air carrier service movement in exaltation.

are competitive with general aviation service.

Highway transportation includes ptiblic modes One may travel using public: or private such as intercity buses, priority freight, and means. Abosd intercity public modes (bus, rail, passenger a r carrie). travel is regulated common carrier trucking (firms represented by as to route followed. fare charged, and quantity the United Parcel Service or the Railway Ex- press Agency). Private modes using the high- of route service provided. To be economical, way system include the automobile and private ptlblic modes require the use of large vehicles and scheduled service. trucking. For present purposes, railway ser- vices will be limited to passenger movement Private modes are those permitting an in- since railroad freight is rot competitiva with dividual to transport himself or others in his general aviation in the area of priority freight own vehicle. Automobiles and some portions of transport.

general aviation fall into this category. Here, A transportation system consists of vehi- one is governed by his personal demand cles, ways, and terminals. The vehicle is schedule.

characterized by its speed, capacity, range, Although general aviation constitutes only and energy consumption. The way includes a small part of the total transportation system.

both the physical infrastructure m d the cor~trol its impacts tend to be very concentrated. Pre- systems, the characteristics of which determine sently, a large portion of the work force in the its capacity. The terminal is the point at which United States is involved largely in the access to, and egress from the system occurs.

manipulation and flow of information. While Terminals usuaily represent a constraint on much of this flow is necessarily personal, face- both the capacity and accessibility of the to-facecontact at specific locations, significant system.

amounts of data can, and are, transmitted and The following paragraphs describe the received by other means.

technological characteristics of these compo- The era of "information explosion"-par- nents for general aviation and for each of the titularly in business. engineering, scientific, other competing modes, and discctsses their in- and socialtbehavioral f i e l d ~ h x i led to dra- tegration into an operating transportation matic advances in technological communica- system.

tions. In solid state electronics, the rapid growth and IowereJ costs of computers, com- The Vehicle municatioi~; systems, and instrumentation Speed and capacity figures of selected transportation vehicles for both passenger and technology, plus iowered costs have enabled great advances in information flow. "In other priority freight are shown in Table Il-V. General words, we can transmit the producu of the aviation vehicles are among the fastest. yet they white collar worker-his ideas and thoughts are of limited capacity.

(information)-electronically and relieve him of The Way being transported physically so as to capitalize Three major classifications of the way that are of concern here: (1) airway, (2) highway, " Lathey. Charles E Telecommunrcatrons Subslrtutabrltly and (3) railway. The type of control system as- tor Travel An Energy Conservetron Potentral Department of Com- merce January 1975 sociated with the way often determines its capacity. Positive control is exercised over all classification, which is defined in terms of the planes in the national airways system. Minimum number of lanes and the type of access control, separation of 3 miles within 40 miles of a radar and is limited by the speed limit now set at 55 site and 5 miles beyond a radar site is main- mph.

tained with a resulting airway capacity of Railroad capacities are determined by the 30-120 planes pet hour at each designated control system as shown in Table Il-VI. Block altitude level.

signals refer to signals set by the passage of a Highway capacity varies with its functional train. Control is by means of train orders, which TABLE ll-V VEHICLE CAPACITIES A Passenger Capacity (passeng8fs) Speed (mifhr) Air Carrier 31- 500 300-650 General Aviation 2 - 30 100-560 Highway Auto 2 - 10 Bus 30- 50 Rail Car ! 3 - 70 Train up to 20 cars 50- 1,430 0. Freight Capacity (tons) Speed (milhr) Air Carrier (tons) 1 0 - 100 General Aviation 0.1- 3 Highway Auto 0.5 - 1 T r u ~ k 1 - 30 TA3LE Il-VI HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY CAPACITIES A. Highways No. d Lanes (in one Accerr direction) Control Control Freeway 2 - 4 Full None Expressway 2 - 4 Partial Stoplight Arterial 1 - 3 None Stoplight Collector 1 - 2 None Stoplight Stop Sign Local 1 None Stop Sign Rules of Road B. Railways Capacity TrainsMour Block Signals with Train Orders Single Track 30 Two Tracks 60 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) Single Track 65 Two Tracks 125 specify the location of meets between trains. This small number tends to limit the availability and wiisre each train shall hold, while of the general aviation system.

centralized traffic control (CTC) refers to the The air carrier system is reliable because col?trol of all -'?pals and witches along a a.r carriers fly IFR, which will get them through given stretch of track (as much as 500 miles) by moc! bad weiither situations. Severe snow, rain.

a dispatcher in a central location.

and cloud conditions, however, c m stii! stop flights. Under severe weather conditions, alr- Terminals pcrt operations at crowded airports are slowr?d Airport capacity, usually expressed in down, resulting in extended delays. Due to their terms of opera?ions/hour, is frequently a deter- ability to land at smaller airports, geieral avia- mir.;ng factor of total system capacity. The tion aircraft can avoid congestion, but their fre- capacity c: an airport is influenced by factors quent dependence on VFR reduces their such as the traffic mix, weather, and runway reliability in unfavorable weather.

configuration. A "light aircraft" traffic mix in- Reliability of the highway system can also cludes 10 percent twin engine piston vehicles be significantly reduced by adverse weather and 90 percent single engine piston. For exarn- a.rd congestion conditions. The intercity bus ple, a single runway can handle 53 light aircraft system suffers from the same highway system operations per :lour under IFR conditions, 99 deficiencies, but is usually fairly reliable, and under VFR. With dual runways. capacity is in- published schedules are usually adhered to creased to 79 and 198 operations per hour and rarely canceied. The rail system has the po- respectively. Bus term~nals can have capacities tential for greatest reliability. because both the of between 6 and 45 buseshour,lberths. Inter- railway and rail traffic movements are under the city bus terminals tend toward the lower exclusive control of rail managemem. The figures, psrticuiarly where pull-in back-out system. however, sgffers from deferred mainte- angle stalls are used. Rail terminal capacity nance to both the Nay and the vehicle, causing varies from 6 to 40 trains/hours/track depend- slow running-speeds and increased accident ing upon type of service offered. Again. inter- rates.

city service tends toward the lower figure. The utility of a terminal is a function of its ac- Another transportation system charac- cessibility. Airports are usually iocated at some teristic is adaptability both to load and terrain.

distance from a town's central business district as characterized by the important factors of (CBD). Access may be available by private au- weight and space limitations. In dealing with tomob~le only, or by taxis. limousines. buses bulk freight for example. the modes with the and mass transit facilities as well, depending greatest limitations are gensral aviation. bus, on the size of the towr, and autos as compared to trucks and air car- riers having larger cargo space.

Bus terminals tend to be located on the edge of the CBD. with ous service usually Terrain adaptability is dependent upon the operating on a non-stop basis between major ab~lity of a particular mode to function in terminals. Occas~onally major services will different environments. Highway modes are stop, briefly, at suburban locations but these limited to the highway system. Railroads face usually require time-consuming detours.

fixed right-of-way limitations, and airplanes.

although l~mited by the placement of an airport, Although there may be many rail terminals have the capability of bypassi~g all but :he in a city, there is ~sually only one per rail line.

most rugged terrain.

located close to the CBD on the intercity por- tion of the line passing through the city.

Routing flexibility refers to the ability to System Characteristics change a route. or change destinations wh~le en route. Public systems are generally less flex- System characteristics wkch will be dis- ible than private ones. with the most flexible cussed i~clude availability, reliability, adap- be~ng the intercity bus followed by air carrier tabillty, routing flexibility. and safety.

(which is limited to certain large airports) and The concept of availability is comparable r a ~ l (which is limited as to dest~nation and to that of accessibility for public systems. Only route) Among private systems. the auto is most private systems will be compared in terms of flexible.

availability. The highway system is available to all who have a driver's license and have access General aviation has the following charac- to an automobile. This is a sizeable portion of teristics: (1) small (2-30 passengers) vehicle the population. especially as compared to the capacity; (2) a greater network of terminals than number of licensed p~lots and private aircratt. in air carrier transport. This network of facilities is, however, less ubiquitous than other ground The variable costs per mile for bus and transportation modes; (3) more limited coach rail travel are almost equivalent, but the availability than other modes; (4) the interface fixed costs portion of rail travel is about $5.00 in of general aviation with other modes is plagued excess of that of bus. As expected, both are by the samc type of airport accessibility prob- less costly than any of the air travel modes. For lem as those facicg many air carrier airports; (5) trip lengths of less than 135 miles, commuter the reliability of general aviation services is airlines are obviously the most economical highly dependent on both pilot qualifications mode, exclusive of bus and coach rail. For trips and weather conditions: (6) limited load adap- of 135-450 miles, the first class rail is more eco- tability; and. (7) excellent terrain adaptabili~, nomical, but the time difference is significant and flexibility depending upon airport enough to result in these modes accommodat- availability.

ing different and separate markets. The traveler who values physical comfort over saving time These characteristics suggest several would probably wlect first-class rail. The tra- different uses for general aviation, such as (a) veler who values his time <and who is deter- high speed point-to-point transportation for mined to travel by air, would i4100se the com- small groups or small packages of high value muter airiine which is the least costly mode for particularly from general aviation airports to trip lengths of up to 200 miles.

other airports; (b) convennient travel where dis- tances are great and weather is dependable; (c) Considering the time differential Setween accessibility to remote areas in ruggea terrain rail and air, and assuming that the additional where landing facilities are available.

time required for rail or other ground travel is not acceptable to the traveler. then commuter Cost Comparisons In an analysis of the out-of-pocket costs of airlines provide the cheapest acceptable mode intercity public transportation mode, fares for for trips of up to about 200 miles. It is interest- one-way trips of different lengths and travel ing to compare this with the average trip length of commuter airlines, which was reported to be modes were compared. These modes included intercity bus, coach rail, roomette rai;. tourist 102 miles of non-stop travel. .' The difference and first class trunk and local service airlines. between these two f i g u r s can be explained by and commuter airlines. The last mode repre- the fact that the average trip is made up of more than one non-stop hop, and that the traveler ex- sents the public transportation sector of general aviation. Data were obtained by ran- presses a preference for the more comfortable dom selections of trips from the schedules and air carrier. Upon considering the tradeoffs be- rate charts published by these common car- tween cost and convenience, more trcvelers rlers. A linear regression line was fitted to the will opt for the more costly air carrier mode, as the cost difference decreases and the distance data, to produce an equation of the form: traveled approaches 200 miles.

F ~ r e = (Fixed Cost) + (Variable Cost) (Trip Length) The private automobile remains the most economical mode of travel, and possibly the where costs are in dollars and trip length is in most convenient for many trips' purposss. Auto miles. All regressions had coefficients of deter- travel costs are less than commuter airlines for mination (R2) in excess of 0.955. The following distances of crp to about 500 miles. This dis- equations were obtained: tance is based on a single passenger occupan- (1) Bus Fare = 3 7d + (0 0325) (Trip Lengih) cy, and of course increases as car-occupancy Rz = 0 985 increases. Here again, time presents itself as a (2) Coach Rall Fare= 8 77 + (0 0423) (Tnp Length) significant factor. because many travelers R' = 0 990 would not be willing to drive for ten hours in (3) Roomette Rall Fare = 16 09 + (0 078) (Trip Length! order to cover a 500-mile trip which should take R' = 09% less than three hours by air. The automobile.

however, remains as a serious competitor with (4) Tour~st Air Carr~er Fare=20 59 + (0 C66) (Tnp Length) R' = 0 970 general aviation lor business trips ranging up to 200-300 miles; for longer recreational trips (5) F~rst Class Air Carr~er- Fare: 27 38 + O 095 (Tr~p Length) where the relative value of t~me IS not signifi- R2 = 0 974 cant; and, where a higher average automobile (6) Commuter Alrllnes Fare= 11 53 + (0 112) (Trrp Length) occupancy can be exoected.

R' = 0 955 These regression lines are shown in Figure 2-4.

Because of real t~me expenditures and costs involved in physical transportation, travel '' ',Commcter Alrl~nes Commuter Alrl~ne Assoctat~on Re- subst~tutes are being stlldied with a view ~ r t No 3 July. 1975 p 3 ONE-WAY DISTANCE (MILES) COMPARATIVE FARES OF INTERCITY PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION FIGURE 2 4 toward reducing unnecessary intercity m ~ e - mental, and economic characteristics of the substitution mechanism. Taken collectively, ment.

these factors can reduce the utility of travel, Communication and thus might iesult in a substitution of corn- munication ;or transportation. Technological Communication is the complex process of d e v e ! a p m e n t s c o u p l e d w i t h c o m - generating meaning by transmitting and receiv- fortlconvenience and cost savings can be ex- ing messagas (information) between one per- pected to significantly influence modal choice.

son (or group) and another (or group of others).

While trdvel might appear to be inelastic with In a business setting interaction between in- respect to cost. attitude change (a behavioral dividuals is usually either by oral, written, or component) is probably its most effective com- nonverbal cues. A logical communicative ex- ponent.

tension for point-to-point interactionwhere per- sonal subtleties are not important is telecom- Telecommunication Technology munication. Well known to the general public, Today a variety of informatioi transfer telecommunication occurs in a continuous methods exist which can impact on the mode-television, AM and FM radio, and the substittitability issue.

telephone. The impetus of the space age Telephone Network. The Bell Telephone together with integrated, solid state technology System and the independent telephone com- has pervitted a more diverse, efficient and less panies transmit over 155 billion messages an- known form of communication, discrete or nually with a growth rate of 8 percent per digital in nature, to mature.

year. 4g Whils the primay purpose of this Telecommcnication Scope transmission system has been the continuous Today telecommunication is used in such transmission of voice in a narrow range of the fields as clinical diagnosis, education, public audio band, research over the years has services, cultural and entertainment oppor- adapted it to other uses without changing the tunities, banking, access to computer data transmission characteristics. Thus, for exam- banks. and computational facilities. Even of- ple, by coupling speclal units (modems) at each fices are being reshaped due to the electronics end of the telephone link, digital data can be and digital revolution. Not only is telecom- sent at medium speeds up to 9600 bitsisecond.

munication becoming a substitute for travel, but By coupling various numbers of telephone l~nes it is also becom~ng an integral part of the post- together, slow scan video or full video can be industrial society.

sent over ordinary telephone linkages. The lat- Though substitution of travel for telecom- ter use is of course inefficient but remains to be munication can !x discussed on both an in- cheaper than any travel alternative.

tracity and an intercity level, since concern Dedicated Digital Transmission Systems.

here is with aviation. only the latter case is rele- The famous Canterfone Decision by the FCC in vant. Of the 370 billion miles trs~eled intercity 1968, which allowed non Bell Equipment to be in 1972,315 billion were by car and 43 billion by connected to the telephone system, ushered in air, the remaining used other modes. These a new era in telecommunications. More recent represented 391 million and 53 million trips decisions have had a direct impact by allowing respectively. While general aviation is a small special digital-only tariff carriers to compete part of the total picture described. its growth with the telephone system. Such companies as trends have k e n significant in recent years.

MC, and Datran have set up dedicated dig~tal- The principles to be discussed below are wideband-links between regional cities around equally applicabla to general aviatlon as well the country. In response, the Bell System in- as other modes of travel.

troduced the Data Under Voice (DUV) system At the present time. with no disincentives and is in the process of putting in its own or ificentives either way, the relationship bet- specialized digital lines. All these are wideba,id ween travel and co~nmunications is highly cor- lines. equivalent to many telephone circuits in related. Those who trqvel more tend to use the bandwidth; and, being high speed in nature, communications medli, more, while those who could handle video signals a- ell.

travel less tend to use tt,em less. This relation- Computer Networks. As computers ship, however, IS ~nfluenc?d by considerations become more developed, their impact or, of the soclal, cultural, tect nological. environ- society increases. Aside from scientific com- putatlons, they can also manipulate symbols.

'' Kollen James H Transports ron--Cornmun~catron thus enabling them to be used as interpreters, Substrtutabrliiy A Research Proposal. Bell 'snada Febtuary 1973 string processors, and simulators. They are capable of storing miilions of bits of information at normal teletype (lTY) speeds (100 charac- and accessing millions more in auxiliary terstsecond), are very effective but limited.

They provide useful output from data banks and storage devices such as magnetic tapes anci discs. With the time-saving software now are capable of sending messages to other available, terminals remotely hooked up users. Graphic terminals, while also connected through a telephone line or a dedicated line, to computers, can draw lines in addition to writ- have the full use of the computing system at a ing text. Some of both types can operate in the central location. Thus, simple information intelligent mod-involving user interaction retrieval becomes a reality. If entire libraries and having its own computational ability-and can be stored in a data bank, trips to can also operate at high speeds up to 60 kilobits/second. But the higher the speed, the specialized facilities are no longer necessary.

higher the capital and opt!rational costs. An ad- Resources savings like these have been developed through the Advanced Research vantage of both types is ttie ability to connect to Projects Agency (ARPA) and are being ex- a hardcopy device for a permanent record (very tended to Europe via satellite. slow).

Finally, with facsimile, a permanent Cable Television. The advent of cable hardcopy is sent with slow to medium speeds, television has caused further consideration of usually over regular telephone lines. For those two-way systems like the telephone system.

cases where a specific document is required, Since cable television is broadband by nature, this procedure is cheap and adequate.

its extension to a two-way system would be sim- ple, though much development remains to be Communications Satellites. Such equip- done on the practicality and economics. The ment allows any signal, slow or fast, to be transmitted over long distances where cables potential of a two-way switched system similar to the telephone system has profound implica- are not available. Many telephone and televi- tions for shopping, library services, banking, sion circuits are now ava~lable through this education, and even home offices. Such a medium at less cost than equivalent land point- system, however, is expensive and might not be to-point facilities.

practical in the near future, except for special Future Thinking applications such as those in business or In dealing with the overall substitution education.

problem a significant amount of research in Other Visual Media. While two-way cable several areas is necessary. Attitudes must be television might be impractical, there are other studied to d ~ s ~ o v e r the reasons why people do useful picture transmissicn applications ssch what they do, and underlying assumptions as Picturephone'. conference television about human needs and behavior must be (closed circuit), alpha numeric terminals (in- scrutinized. Extensive substitution of electrcnic telligent and passive), graphic terminals, and communications for travel and face-to-face In- facsimile. Each of these media has the attribute teraction requires a restructuring of values and of providing visual information to the user yet both affective and cognitive behavioral change.

each requires different types of facilities.

One must re-evaluate the reasons why, and Picturephone uses long distance, two-way ways in which, people interact interpersonally picture transmission for business applications within a decentralized industrial facility. For- By its :ery nature video transmission requires tunately a beginning has made in answer- large bandwidths. Even at the slow scan speed ing some of these questions. Current research used, many ordinary telephone channe!~ are re- In this area is increasing at a rapid pace. It is an quired: 80, three-kilocycle channels as op- opportune time because transportation, a high- posed to 1500, three-kilocycle telephone chan- Iv visible network is slowly becoming saturated.

nels for ordinary television. Plcturephone has while telecommunications is much less visible turned out to be expensive and requires special and its saturation level much higher. Research hookups, since ~t IS not operated through the areas Include: innovation towards more effi- regular telephone switching system. Con- cient use of the present telecommunicat~ons ference television requires large bandwidths network; the effects of disincentives towards and special facilltles. But used in place of travel; and studies of the costs and benefits of travel. :,\ese approaches can effect significant substiti~;ion. In addition the behavioral aspects cost savings.

must be considered.

Terminals used w ~ t h computers, if operated The New Rural Soclety Program (NRSP), a program supported by the Department of Hous- '" Plcturephone 1 s a reg~stered trademark of the Bell System ing and Urban Development (HUD) and oper- ated by Goldmark Communications through to co~npromise, except in audio, Fairfield University, has undertaken a long- between unacquainted people range program to address a number of issues of where the stronger case domi- t h ~ s type. s1 Principal conclusions relevant to nated. The situation of number (3) the present discussion can be summarized as above was not supported with follows: bargaining involved.

For companies which had recently A full test between two facilit~es (1) (5) relocated, top management felt that using audio, visual, and facsimile movement was done for space, transmission indicated that such a moderr: facilities, costs in cities, method were useful and important.

crime, and transportation. Com- These results of studies conducted by the munications was not a problem, New Rural Society are not generalizeable however. those companies which beyond the organizations in which the studies had considered moving but did not, were corducted, neveeheless they dernon- stated commun~cations as a prime strate that attitudes and behaviors toward reason. This was because of dis- substitutab~lity can be modified.

satisfaction with future phone ser- Telecommunication IS not e total substitute vice, and a possible reduction of because people rriss face-to-face contact even face-to-face relationships.

when vldeo is provided. This is particularly true A major conclusion of audio-only (2) in a direct sales environment, in counseling, conferencing systems was thst they and in areas where empathic sensitivity is re- are more acceptable than pre- quired. The Joint Unit for Planning in England vicdsly thought. Specifically: reported that audio conferees found meetings (a) multichannel audio was not to be more business-like and more tlrlng than more acceptable than monaural conventional meetings, ~ossiblly resulting from between two people: concentration fatigue. 5 2 (b) multispeaker (one speaker for Teleconferencing Utility each person) audio systems are Two excellent examples illustrate the utllity m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s t h a n of teleconferencing: (1) Union Trust Company monaural in a group con- from December 1973 to May 1974: the Union ference call; and.

Trust Company with offices in Stamford and (c) the multispeaker arrangement New Haven. Connecticut, 25 miles apart, con- had the advantage of ducted a teleconferencing experiment under (i) separate sound image for the auspices of the NRSP.53 Using a special each person electronic "sound imaging" procedure, which (ii) f a c i l i t a t i n g a m o r e uses ste:eo techniques and isophonlc loud- stimulating discussion speakers, audio communi: ations were set up ( i i ~ ) a better quality sound between two officers using both Class A audio- (iv) warmer contact between grade and Class C voice-grada llnes (the latter conferences.

proved acceptable). The system allowed each Given a problem-solving task, ac- participant, with a separate microphone, to be (3) quainted persons peformed better identified Documerlts were sent vla the fac- than unacquainted persons m n g simile part of the system for hardcopy. Video an audio only system. In addition was eliminated as being tao expensive and not really necessary. The system had: (1) simpl~city face-to-face contact under the same conditions was less desira- ar~d tamper-proof design; (2) poitab~l\ty; (3) ble. aesthetic appeal not detracting from the Cora- ference rocrn; and, (4) a desigri for up to six If bargaining was involved in the (4) participants (more cogld be handled i f necess- communication. the tendency was ary).

'Abstracts. New Rural Soc~ety Project Stamford Con- The project was designed to test users' at- nectlcut 06904 November 1974 titudes and feelings before and after the ex- " "The Scope tor Person-to-Person Telecommun~cat~ons periment. the effect~veness of the opera;ion.

Systems In Go~ernment and Business. ' Cornmun~catlve Study and the frequency of use as a substitute. The Group. Un~vers~ty College London September. 1973 In Lathey, op Clt.

results were signlf~cant: '> Tomey J F "Unlon Trust Installs NRS Sound Imag~ng Throughout the extended f~eld trlal, Teleconferenc~ng System. Cornrnun~cat~ons News. May 1975 (1) the use of the teleconference save energy and travel time, but it re- system was high. Nearly all partici- quires less executive time during the pants in the trial substituted use of actual sessions. Participants are the system tor at least 50 percsnt of more inclined to adhere to the pre- their face-to-face meetings. More p a r e d a g e n d a a n d n o t g e t than one-third substituted telecon- sidetracked into irrelevant discus- ferencing for 80 percent or more of sions. Everyone agrees that most their face-to-face meetings. meetings show an actual increase in efficiency. s4 Users of the system reported that (2) (2) NASA: In order to expedite the tremen- teleconference meetings were as dous volume of complex information-techni- effective as the face-to-face meet- i n g s t h a t t e l e c o n f e r e n c i n g cal, planning, and administrative-associated with the Apollo program, NASA in 1968 set up a replaced. This evaluation was re- teleconferencing capability between the ported in each questionnaire ad- ministration during the length of manufacturing, testing, and decision-making centers of the program. It included a capability the field trial.

of handling up to 50 people at a conference (3) Teleconference meetings were with high and low speed facsimile. No video generally 30-35 percent shorter has been used. For each dollar spent for than the prior face-to-face meet- teleconferencing, an estimated 3 to 5 dollars ings.

has been saved in travel. 55 The present Viking In comparrison to previous face-to- (4) Project, scheduled to soft-land on Mars in July face meetings, participants were 1976, has been involved in a similar project at more attentive to what was being considerable savings. 56 said, it was easier to get a point Because of initial successes, NASA has across without a lengthy debate, made a total commitment to the teleconferenc- and discussion of particular items ing arrangement. A modification of the Bell tended :o be shorter.

Systems Model 50-A teleconferenclng system (5) Participants reported that the with facsimile facilities, became a permanent human aspects of meeting were part of the entire NASA system in January 1975 maintained in the teleconferencing and an effort has been made to encourage environment.

teleconference use between and among the NASA centers.

(6) The teleconference system proved to be cost-effective, saving approx- In the first three months of operation, 395 imately $500 per month, consider- teleconferences were held wlth 13,084 people ing only system cost in comparison involved. The facsimile network transmitted with the value of saved travel costs 84,172 pages. This amounts to an average con- and executive travel time. Execu- ference of 37 people using five terminals for tive time saved by achieving objec- about three hours. It is estimated that 2,414 trips tives in a briefer time period would have been saved in the three months at a cost add significantly to the cost-effec- savings of $521,000. 57 So-called "saved trips" tiveness of the teleconference are difficult to estimate since they are "trips" system.

which may not have been taken or for wh~ch other trips were substituted.

A particularly significant benefit gained from the system was reported by Thomas NASA IS interested in both evaluation of Richardson, the bank's cha~rman and chief ex- present facilities and research into new un- ecutive officer: developed modes of teleconferenc~ng. Pre- sently a hardware device (modem) is being bu~lt Not only does thls type of meeting to supply both audio and slow scan pictures between Houston, Texas, and Rockwell Inter- national in California using Frequency Sh~ft I' Pol~shuk P . '.Rev!ew ol the Impact of Telecommun~ca- Keying (FSK) techniques. It will take place in lions Subsl~tutes for Travel ' to appear In the IEEE Transact~ons on real time providing a hardcopy In less than one Cornrnunrcafrons. October 1975 minute.

" S~ncoff. M Z . et a l . Urban Transporfat~on Perspect~ves on Mobrlrty and Chorce. NASA No NGT-47-003-028 August 1974 Video transmissions have not been '' Fordyce S 'Evalual~on of the Teleconference P~lot Pro- neglected. In cooperatlon with the Canadian ject After Three Months of Operahon.' NASA Ir . rnal rrtemo June.

Government, NASA IS design~ng a high speed digital transmission system in the 12-14 substitute for intercity transportation is bright.

Telecommunications technological improve- Gigahertz range for the Canadian Television System (CTS) relay satellite. Transmission ments coincident with continued, demonstrable rates will be about 11 megabits. While probably applications in the practical use of the media in intercity transmission, will secure the place of not cost effective since it is experimental, the this travel substitute. Modifications in our at- system will be available to NASA users on a sharing basis with Canada fcr the cost of the titudes and behaviors will allow elsctronic com- receiving and transmitting units. munications to substitute where travel in the past has been considered a necessity.

Finally, using the electronic blackboard developed by the Bell Telephone System, NASA hopes to install 12 such units when they become available at each center presently ENERGY RESOURCES AND USE hooked up in the telenet. These have been Introduction designed for the 50-A Portable Conference Telephone and will provide the ability for writ- As one of the most industrialized nations in ten communications in real time. Other telecon- the world, the U.S. requires enormous alnounts ferencing experiments and operational systems of energy to function. It is projected that the are described by PolishukSB and lathe^.^^ They U.S. will require a doubling of energy demand include: Confravision-British Teleconferenc- in the period 1970-1985. 60 Based on 1971 esti- ing, Australia CCTV Teleconference, Bell mates, it is anticipated that dependence on coal System Video Teleconferencing, Metropolitan and the use of imported oil will both increase in Regional Council Talevision System (MRC-N), the future. About 92 perceiit of all our energy is Dow Chemical USA Interactive Television derived from fossil fuels today, while in 1990 it System, Vermont-New Hampshire Medical In- is expected that this proportion will drop to 70 teractive Television Network, Massachusetts percent, the difference being absorbed mainly General Hospital-Veterans Administration Hos- by nuclear energy sources.

pital CClV Network, Arizona Telemedicine The increased use of energy in the United Network, 1Js.w York-Boston Banking Video States is due to both increased industrialization Teleconferencing System, GSA Teleconferenc- and populat~on growth. This fact is brought out ing System, Forum-A Computer Teleconferenc- more clearly in Table 11-VII where past trends ing System.

and future projections have been made for total energy and for transportation energy demand in Conclusions Intercity transportation will continue, albeit the United States along with the trend of modified, verhaps in speed, frequency, and petroleum consumption.

cost. The future of telecommunications as a While the demand for energy Increases ex- ponentially, transportation is expected to con- tinue to consume the ~istorically stable 25 per- cent of the total. Mort serious, however, is the lagging domestic energy product~on making '* Lathey, op or. McDowell C B , ef a1 . 'Remote Blackboards System for the DDD Telephone Network Proc IEEE the nation more dependent on foreign sources Elecfronic Conference. Ch~cago Ill Oct . 1971. "Confrav~s~on The for energy supplies.

New P?st Ofl~ce Serv~ce tot Bus~ness Meet~ngs Between Two Cen- ters.' B r ~ t ~ s h P 0 Telecommun~cat~ons. London England May Our most critical energy source now and In 1973. Morlco R and Bruggeeman H . "A D~scuss~on of Multr-Loca- the near future is petrclzum. As shown in Table 110" TV Conference Arrangements ' Austra:~a P 0 Research Re- port NO 67% May 15, 1975 Horkuess. R . ~~Telecommun~cat~ons Il-VII transportation is one of the largest users Subst~tutes 101 Travel. Dept of Commerce OT-SP-73-2 Decem- of petroleum and presently derives 96 percent ber 1573. "Two-Way Telev~s~on C ~ n f e r e n c ~ ~ l g for Government The of its energy from it. With its increas~ng depen- MRC-TV System ' The Rand Corp and R-1489-l4RC Apr~l. 1974 ' How Dow Talks to Dow on Closed-C~rcu~t TV ' Business Week.

dence on a source of energy which is not only Augusl 10 1974. Reeves J . el a l . "A Descr~pt~on of the Vermont.

dwindling but subject to future political va- New Hampsh~re Med~cal lnteract~ve Network Proc IEEE Natio.ia1 garies, the transportation industry-the Telecommurr~cal~ons Conference. A p r ~ l 1971 S~ebert D J "Development and Evaluat~on of a Model lnteract~ve Telev~s~on l~feblood of any nation-IS in a very difficult System Danmoulh Medtcal School December 1972 ' Ar~zona sltuatlon.

Tele Med~c~ne Network Eng~neertng Master Plan Unlvers~ty of Ar~zona College of ~ e d ~ c ~ n e December 1972. Communicafions To further elaborate, Figure 2-5 shows the News. October 1974 Letter Automated Data and Telecommun~ca- total historical use of petroleum by industry in tlonsServ~cesGSA.March 1974 Vallee J andM~ller R H . Group Commun~cattons Through Computers ' Report No R-35 lnst~tute the U.S. along with various transportation de- for the Future. Menlo Park Callfornla mands. Each cateaorv has been ex~onentiallv " Penner. S S and lcerman L . Demands, Resources lm

increasing and prGe&ons are for a'75

pact Technology and Policy. VI Add~son-Wesley. Read~ng, Mass increase in the SIX years ending in 1978. Indica-

5 19b0 1965 1970 1972

Y E A R

Sou rce: Adapted from "Transportation Facts and Trends,"

Transportation Association of America, December 1974.

U. S. PETROLEUM USAGE (1855-1972) FIGURE 2 6 TABLE II-VII THE USE AND CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY & PETROLEUM Total Enorgy Total Petrolwm Conaumptlon Source: Hirst, E., Energy Consumption for Transportation In the 3.S. (Oak Ridge National Labs, No.

ORNL-NSF-EP-15, 1972).

TABLE II-VIII

TRANSPO RTATlO tJ STATISTICS

Vehiclw Vehicle Mllw TonM11ea Fuel Gdlona (107 (1 on) (1 00) (1 00) 1960 1972 1960 1972 1960 1972 1960 1972

Car 56,935 87,000 587.4 1004.2 - 41.2 73.46

lntracity* 65.2 60.7 2.14 1.756

Rail (Pass.) 25.7 7.76 21.28 8.57 -

Scheduled Air (Pass.

and Freight) 1,842 2.35 .821 2.00 - 1.90 7.89

G.A. Pass.

and Freight) 78.8 134.9 1 .n 3.14 - . h 2 .734

Truck (ICC) 279 530 7.2 14.2 7,200 15,500 15.88 30.72 *All lntracity Public Transit Modes Source: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Statistical Abstracts of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1974).

tions are that aircraft demand, though only a Energy Int9ndivenes8 fraction of the total, is increasing at a faster rate and Efficiency than other modes. Compounding the problem is Both passenger miles and freight ton-miles an increase energy loss (waste) for and aviation have been in- due to conversion prcce-s from about 49 per- creasing at a faster rate the number of cent in 1970 to 58 percent in 1985 vehicles in operation. Table Il-VIII summarizss the situation for the 12-year period 1960-1972.

w Cerrarn Background lnfonnetion lor Consideration When The use of gasoline is increasing not only Evaluati.rg the National Energy Dllemme. Jo~nt Comm~nes on because of increased vehicle miles, but also as Atom~c Energy. U S Government Prlntlng Office. Wash~ngton. D C a result of the decreased efficiency of eutomo-

Y E A R

Sou rce: Adapted from"Transportation Fads and ~rends:'

Transportation Association of Arr8er ica, Cecember, 1974.

TRANSPORTATION LOAD FACTORS FOR CLASS 1 INTERCITY CARRIERS FIGURE 2-6 many parameters such as speed, mode, seat biles as reflected in decreasing aulomobi le mileage per gallon (m.p.g ). It has been recom- capscity, design, and typical load factor. Table mended by the Federal Energy Administration Il-IX which is a composite set of average num- !hat the latter figure be raised to 20 m.p.g. from bers drawn from mairy sources has been com- the present 12.67 m.p.g. as a conservation piled to allow ready comparisons. It is 'rn- measure. mediately obvious that walkirtg and bicycling are the most efficent in the use of energy while Siwe transportation has many aspects, at- autos and airplenes are the least efficient, with tempts to classify each for comparative pur- the business jet being by far the worst. Load poses is difficult. In terms of energy, it has factors used for the calculation values given in become common practice to measure the effi- the table were chosen so as to reflect what ciency of transportation in Btu's per passenger- seems to be reasonable wer6ges. Actual load mile or Btu's per ton-mi!e, i.e., energy inten- factors over the last 23 years appear in Figgre siveness (El). This figure of merit is affected by 2-6 for airline, rail, and bus carriers. Clearly, TABLE ll-lX THE ENERGY INTENSIVENESS OF ALTERNATIVE TRANSPORTATION MODES maximum El' Average El at Average

s w Capacity at lW%LF*' Load F-?tor Load Factor

(mph) (Seats) (BTUlPM) (Percart) (BTUIPM) Urban Bicycle 1- 10 1 200 100 200 Welk 1- 5 1 300 100 300 Auto (Large) 5- 20 6 2060 30 6870 Auto (Compact) 5- 20 4 2000 30 6670 Auto (Electric) 5- 20 4 1360 30 4500 Motorcycle 10- 25 1 2260 100 2260 Bus (Diesel) 5- 15 50 660 58 1170 Bus (Gas) 5- 15 30 lOO!I 45 2220 Van (Gas) 15- 20 10 1 600 45 3330 Subway 15- 30 1000 850 35 2430 U r b a ~ .urban Comt . 3ail Elect 25- 4 : 125 570 35 1636 Diesel 25- 45 90 940 35 2700 Gas Turbine 25- 45 80 1700 35 4860 Helicopter (3-engine) 95-150 78 10030 58 17300 Intercity BIJS (Diesel) 40- 60 50 390 46 850 Rail (feet) 50-100 360 540 35 1540 Rail ( c r ~ s s country) 40- 60 360 650 35 1860 747 jet 500 360 3250 55 5909 707 Jet 500 136 3850 62 6200 STOL 200 95 3960 55 7200 VTC L 200 100 4533 55 8240 G. A. Recreational (Cherokee 180) 141 4 2073 50 41 46 G.A. Business (Twin) (Baron B55) 225 6 2670 50 5340 G.A. Bus~ness Jet (Learjet 35) 500 10 9527 50 19054 *Energy Intensiveness 1-oad Factor

- - - . -

45.000 40,000 35,000 PASSENGERS 30.000

-

-

.F

C 25,000 0

B

cn z 20,000 : cn

s

COMMERCIAL I-

PASSENGERS z

>

g

15.000 w 10,000 Source: E. Hirst, "Total Energy Use For Commercial Aviation in the United States", ORNL-NSF-EP-68, April, 1974.

DIRECT ENERGY INTENSIVENESS OF .>iVIL ; . iATION

FIGURE 2-7 there is room for improvement and together remove pressure on general aviation with increased vehicle efficieficy, substantial and so allow a slaver abandonment energy savings can be achieved. of present technology. Some of this work would presumably be of both To balance the picture a similar efficiency direct ar,d indirect benefit to general rating can be made for freight movement. One aviation.

ton-mile of air freight consumes 42.C00 Btu while trucks and railroads have respective rat- The dismay of the public over energy ings of 2.700 and 700 Btu/Ton-mile. e' availability appears to be directed more toward the increasing casts of fossil fuels than toward As shown in Figure 2-7, the El for both the their enventual exhaustion. The ultimate prob- airlines and general aviation in the 1950-71 lem. however, is truly resource exhaustion period reveals that the El for commercialfreight rather than cost. The rising prices simply and passengers has dramatically increased due emphasize the diminishing availability of the mainly to declining load factors and the use of resources. It is cynical to suggest that a 200- turbojets which are more energy intensive.

year coal supply affords significant energy However, in this period the average speed of relief to a race whose problem of survival travel increased by 100 percent from 200 mph to presumably extends thousands of years more than 400 mph. General aviation improved beyond. It is likewise thoughtless to neglect our in this same period due to an increased load present technology by stning that the tech- factor.'12 In fact while passenger traffic in nological level on which future generations will general aviation increased, fuel use grew more live simply will have to be lower than the pres- slowly, a trend which reversed itself in 1966. It ent one. This thinking has never been generally is important to note that general aviation is still acceptable, and it is reasonable to expect that more energy intensive than commercial gains we have so far made will be given up airlines.

reluctantly. But we must realize that research In addition to the direct energy costs of an@ development in the direction of lorlg-range transportation, there are also indirect costs as- relief from the fossil-fuel exhaustion problem sociated with transportation whic9 include the mus: be d c ~ e now. while the short-range out- "energy needed to extract, transport, and refine look still indicates that a few years are left.

oil; to manufacture, maintain airports; and to The two general deficiencies in the area of carry out other air-travel-related activities. 63 energy resource conservation have been that Fuel use represents a larger portion of direct we have not developed the ability to use free cost for aircraft than it does for autos. Typical and renewable resources within the rate limits El's in terms of direct and total energy uses of that would avoid exhaustion, and that we have commercial air travel are 8400 and 11200 not developed the ability to store energy over Btulpassenger mile. Corresponding values for long periods of time. Our two principal means intercity auto travel are 3300 and 5700 are the hydroelectric reservoir and the tank Btu1passenger.-mi le.

farm, as they have beem for forty years.

Future Research It is also worthy .d note the directions of In addition to work directed toward the change that have taken place specifically in the solution of well-identified technical problems, it aircraft area. Fuels and lubricants have the may be conjectured that there are two ways in same source as they did at the start: non- which research and development might impact renewable fossil resources (tt~ough castor oil general aviation favorably over a long range: was used during World War I as a lubricant).

First, research and development's The choice of materials of construction has efforts directed specifically toward swung from renewable to non-renewabie onesfrom wmod and fabric to metals, and moving general aviatlon out of areas lately to energy-intensive materials, the of resource use wherei;l the long- rarlge outlook f o r resource plastics.

availability is poor.

The hold that general aviation has on the small percentage of our resources that it does Second, efforts directed toward other transportation and public utility use is very insecure. A fliel panic such as that of 1973 can cause general aviation fuel supplies areas, the results of wh~ch will to be imperiled in the search for the most visible '2 Hlrst E . 'Total Etergy Use for Cornrner~~al Av~at~on In ways to alleviate the trouble. Continuing in- the U S . ' Oak R~dge Nat~onal Labs. No ONRL-NSF-ED-68. Apr~l creases in resource use can cause repetitions of similar crises and can eventually put general " I b ~ d a small consumer of energy even in the trans- aviation quite literally on the ground.

portation market, it would seem wise from a There are no means of stepping completely strategic point of view to attempt to sidestep the outside the areas of resource use of non-aero- blow that is sure to be felt as non-aviation uses nautical technologies. There are, however.

impact the supply, and seek other sources of ways in which at least temporary relief can be carbon. such as vegetable matter, atmospheric secured.

carbon dioxide, and limestone. O f these three, The search for alternate aircraft fuels is on the visible environment will be influenced least already. There has been considerable specula- by extraction from atmospheric carbon dioxide, tion over the possibie direct use of liquid hy- and most by extraction from limestone. Of the drogen as an aircraft fuel. The manufacturers of three. two methods meet the desirable goal of large airframes have conducted studies indicat- utilizing renewable energy sources.

ing that hydrogen-fuel technology might enable Little commercially-usabletechnology is in development of airframes weighing substan- hand for any of these extraction methods yet, tially less per pound of useful load carried. than but it is not too early ic consider acquiring it.

do airplvles using hydrocarbon fuels. This ad- Aviatim fuel synthesizing. in the general vantage apparently does not extend to smaller fashion called for by the exploitation of the airplanes. The use of hydrogen also depends above techniques. is being explored by the Air upon the development o; a hydrogen economy.

Force. To illustrate how far the development which in term waits upon construction of inex- has to go. in 1974 the price of a gallon of one pensive hydrogen generating plants in large such fuel was $85. The fact that the Air Force capacities. Similar remarks can also be made interest is along the line of tailoring fuels and regarding the next runner-up, liquld methane.

engines to each other brings ap the entertain- It would appear that the small general avia- ing possibility of exploring the feasibility of tion airplane in roughly its present form a i d doing the same thing for non-military power using fuels requiring no more speclal handling plants.

than does avgas. should be the best candidate for survival. If thls is granted, the search should now shift to acceptable mears of obtaining Conclusions replacements for the present fossil source of Tile overall energy picture for the United the fuel. Ths chemical composition of such States and the world is not very promising. With fuels must be generally sim~lar to that of avgas only 5 percent of the world's population. the to yield similar performance and handling pro- United States uses over 30 percent cf the perties. The desirable elements of the fuel are.

worid's energy. This use is predicted to in- to start with at least. only carbon and hydrogen.

crease even in the face of competition for The praduction of liqirid hydrogen is no energy resources by developing nations seek- ing to raise their standards of living. The result.

longer a technological problem in the sense of the difficulties it presents, but IS rather a prob- even considering only the most optimistic pre- lem of cost. In 1974 the cost of liquid hydrogen dictions, is that by 1985 the nation will be only

62 to 89 percent self-sufficient. "

was stated to be from $2.50 to $8.50 per Btu (taken by itself as a fuel). the highest cost of any However some saving in energy used can aircraft fuel considered, except boron (B5Hg).

be effected oy increasing vehicle passenger Nevertheless hydrogen is abundantly available.

and cargo ;oad factors and changing the pres- and IS returnable to the environment In the form ent trwsportation mode mixes away from from whlch it can be extracted in largest trucks and airlines and toward railroads. Volun- quanity. water.

tary =onsewation to date has not worked. The Obtalnlng carbon. however, is another use of electricity did drop by 1.5 percent in the matter. Coal, whlch is being talkea of popularly last quarter of 1973 after contl~uing its normal 7 as a source of gaseous fuel as well as for direct percelit growth rate up to that time. By by use In its natural form, will have heavy pres- "1974. a substantlal return to normalcy had oc- sures placed upon ~t for non-aviation uses as curred. Imports were approaching 40 percent of petroleum resources dwindle. Slnce aviation is U.S. petroleum consumption. . .and the U.S.

had become even more dependent on forelgn supplies that it had been before the crisls of 1973-74 The needed dedication to ~mplement " Nass~kas J N 'Nattonal Energy Pollcy D~rect~ons and Project Independence was absent." 6 5 In fact.

Developments IEEE Transportafron on Industry Applrccf~ons.

VlA.9 NO 5 Sept Oct domestic production of petroleum has decllned In the past year and relaxation in conservation " H~rst E op crr were allocated on the basis of national need, appears total. We now draw 26 percent of our general aviation is bound to be affected the oil imports from Arab countries as opposed to 16 percent in late 1974.w most. although it only uses about .42 percent of total fuel needed by transportation. 67 Further- The effect of energy shortages will affect more. because of its characteristics. aviation automobiles and airplanes the greatest cannot easily switch to alternative modes or tecause of their energy intensiveness. If fuel even take easy advantage of those technologi- cal addances persently on the drawing board " Trme Magannu. July 21. 1975 p 42 such as solar, geothermal, or nuclear.

*- "General Avlat~on krcndt." GPMA. Wash~ngton. D C .

COMMUNITY

PERSPECTIVES

local level. TO assist local decision-makers, the

CHAPTER III

conclusions of this chapter are presented again in a concise and schematic form in Chapter V.

COMMUNITY

- - ~ - -

THE DECISION-MAKING MODEL

PERSPECTIVES

While many studies have been done con- cerning the development of general aviation

INTRODUCTION

facilities, a survev seems to indicate that all of them are bascd on estimates of the future re- Chapters I and II have presented the tech- quirements tor the services offered by the nological and human components of general general w i a t ~ o n facility. These requlrements aviation and the regulatory, competitive, and are generated by the direct users, the private physlcal environment within which it operates.

airplane owners. the p~lots (both private and General aviation is usually of little concern those employed by commercial enterprises), either to those communities which have its ser- 6nd other individuals and corporat~ons who are vice or to those which do not. It becomes a mat- d ~ r e c t users (or beneficiar~es) of aviation.

ter of public concern, however, when someone Another approach to plannlng is to base deci- urges local authorities to obtain or improve ac- sions on the needs of the community w ~ t h cess to general aviation services. (It also respect to the addition, expansion. or improve- becomes a matter of public concern when ment of, a public facility. The purpose of thls general aviation becomes incompatible with section is to look at the needs of the communlty other commu,iity values-noise, conflicts with rather than the requlrements of the user in order other land use or development, etc.-but that is to determine the advisability of alternatlve ac- not a concern of this chapter.) At that polnt.

t~ons. In order to determine those needs, an general aviation becomes a public and political analysis of the cornmun~ty characteristics and question which may ~nvolve such issues as tax- the pressures brought on the community, both ation, lifestyle, and land use, as wel! as other internally and externally, should be undertaken commun~ty goals and ~ndividual aspirations.

(See F~gure 3-1).

The objective of this chapter IS to put general The facilities concerned are those whlch aviation into the perspective of the local com- permlt an ~nterfacs between ava~lable ground munity's decision-making process. The basic and air transportat~on. Cons~der~ng the present questions addressed by this chapter are. How state of the art, these f a c ~ l ~ t ~ e s are a~rports or can a commun~ty decide whether ~t needs better hel~ports, but the future may bring other access to general avlat~op services? And, if poss~b~lltles. Naturally. the type and slze of air- such Improved access IS des~red, how can it port. as well as the services ava~lable at the air- best be acquired? "Access to genetal avlatlon port, become a func!~on of the type and mag- services" rather than "a general aviation air- n~tude of servlces needed by the commun~ty port" is d~scussed because the best pollcy In some cases may be to utilize or expand the ser- In the ~ n ~ t i a l evdluat~on of the need for the vices ava~lable at an exlstlng alrport not too far services of general avlat~on, community away.

characterlstlcs such as demographic data.

socio-econom~c characterlstics, and lnstltu- The object of this analys~s--the local com- tional structures must be cons~dered. In addl- munity-~~difficult to define or describe In t~on. ~nterial and external sources exert various general terns Communities vary enormously pressures on d e c ~ s ~ o n - m a k e r s External in slze and density of populat~on; in geography.

sources are def~ned as those outs~de the con- form of government, and styles ~f life; In eco- trol of the comtnunlty. Internal pressures are nomlc base, level of Incomes, and educat~on; those that are generated from w ~ t h ~ n the com- and, in a host of other ways which make ~t mun~ty. These three determ~nants of need are almost impossible to prescribe the best course brought together by the dec~s~on-maker and for each and every community. Ever1 if the best affect the ~nitlal declslon as to whether or not course could be prescribed, the communit~es the commun~tyneeds the servlces of general would st111 have to be persuaded Rather than av~ation and whether or not it should investi- prescribing. this chapter analyzes the factors gate further the des~rability of constructing a whlch any communlty considering generai av~ation ought to take Into account and also new facility or implementing changes in an ex- outl~nes a decis~on-mak~ng process to be sting faclllty or service. If the dec~s~on-maker finds that no need has been demonstrated, then followed. But the facts of the case and the Im- the process ends; if need is demonstrated, it portance accorded each of the factors involved should take the form of an estimate of economic can only be known and decided upon at the

- M G PAGE BLANg NOT

1 09

ECONOM ICIF! SCAL CAPAB I L ITIES

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS-\ 1

EXTERNAL PRESSURES -

IMPACTS CR

r ACT ICNS

COMMUN ITY CHARACTER I ST I CS

ACTIONS

A A

INTERNAL PRESSURES GIA SERVICE OPTIONS

ALTERNATIVE MODES

I

IMPACT ? IMPACTS 1

ASSESMENT

MODEL OF COMMUNITY/GENERAL AVIATION

DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

FIGURE 3-1

demand for service and of the community's aircraft or alrcraft engines owned by people goals to make sure they are in accord with within the service area of the proposed airport.

general aviation. The simple fact that a number of people in an area own airpla~es is, however, no more ade- Once the economic demand for general quate a reason for constructing a publicly- aviation services is established and found con- owned airport, than is the existence of a num- sonant with con~munity goals, additional fac- ber of boat owners adequate reason for creat- tors must be considered prior to taking any ac- ing a publicly-owned lake. Other factors must tion. These factors include the economics and be taken into consideration.

fiscal capabilities of the community; the future poss~bilities concerning items such as the The criterion of "need" provides a way to growth and potential need of the community; take other factors Into account. Need may be general avlation technology, fuel supplies.

defined as a pressing lack of something essen- future lifestyles, etc.: the specific services that tial. Thus. need for general aviation services is general aviation can be expected to offar and not merely the lack of them. A deterrninatlon which can satisfy the economic der,~ands and that the services are essential and that the lack social and political community goals as of the services is pressing also must be made.

specified in the needs a~a;;.-,;r,; and, finally, an The terms "pressing" and "essential" must be analysis of alternative mods., capable also of defined relative to the speclal character of the satisfying thee? future needs.

community involved A community which As t h ~ s information is syntherized by the regularly faces floods may find that the con- decision-makers, they will be in a better posi- struction of a dike is essential while the con- tion to determine whether or not any action struction of an airport is not. A community with needs to be taken. If, the decision is that no ac- more than adequate publlc servlces in other tion is warranted, the entire project would be respects may find that . i airport is the most dropped. If, however, some zction is called for, oresslna "lack" it has.

-

alternative options must be specified and an The decision-making process of lnitlal assessment of the various impacts of each of need-determinat~on is represented by the sec- these options must be undertaken. The results tion of Figure 3-1 reproduced in Figure 3-2. The of these impact assessments are then fed back decision process is usually initiated when into the decision-making process to determine someone in the community-perh&ps the deci- whether the proposed change in the supply of sion-maker-urges the development of new or aviation servlces and the impacts of such a better general aviation services. Sometimes in- change do in fact satlsfy community needs or ternal pressures result from external pressure, whether the plans need to be re),lsed. The cycle as would be the case when a representative of of optlon specification. impact assessment, and the state aviation agency addresses the local option respeclfication continues, until an op- Chamber of Commerce on the subject. Externti1 tion has been found which s,d:sfles the needs pressure itself, however, sometimes initiates of the community and which is with~n the con- the process, as when a firm promises a com- straints and l~mitat~ons set by Ilfferent factors munity that it will locate there if an airport is In the system's service area. At that point, the constructed which can accommodate its cor- decision-maker is ready to inltii9te action which porate aircraft.

wi:l change the existing structure of the avia- tion services ava~lable to the community of In- Whatever the pressures, the responsible terest.

dec~sion-maker should evaluate them in the l~ght of community character~st~cs. In thls

THE PRELIMINARY DECISION

phase of the process, need is determined by When the questlon of the acquisition of estimat~ny economlc demand and comrnunlty general aviatlon services is rased in a com- goals. The economlc demand estlmate is a pro- munity, the decision-maker must be able to jection of the wlll~ngness and abll~ty of people make a preliminary determinat~on as to whether In the area to purchase the service. The estl- it IS worthwhile to Initiate a detailed invest~ga- mate of community goals determines whether tion of the options available concerning the the acqulsltlon of the service promotes, hin- building, ~mprovement, or change In the avia- ders, or is indifferent with respect to the objcc- tion service system in view of the real needs of tlves of the community as a whole Somet~mes the commgii~ty.

the goals alone may justitj the service an IS- The criterion of "need" dlffers from that of land commurxty may wish to build an alrport In "requirement." "Requirement" for an alrport. order to provlde access In emergencies, even for example. IS determined by the number of though the alrport would not be used often.

EXTERNAL PRESSURES

ECGNOM I C D E b d N D

COM!!,UN I T Y CHARACTER I ST I C S

COMMUN I T Y GCALS

INTERNAL PRESSURES

THE PRELIMINARY NEED-DETERMINATION

FIGURE 3 4

problem fac~ng a community is too much air If there is no demonstrable need or even traffic, the FAA usually recommends acqulsi- likelihood of need, the decis~on process comes tlon of new facilities rather than improving the to an end and the dec~sion-maker decides not efficiency of the existing ones. The FAA acts to pursue the matter. If there appears likelihood that a need for general aviation services exists, in part on the basis of a number of stud~es of the commun~ty impacts of aviation which it has the decision-maker w ~ l l proceed to the next sponsored. Two problems arise in relying step.

solely on these studies: (1) political pressures The remainder of thls chapter deals with tend to make the analysis conform to estab- the components of the preliminary decis~on- lished policy 0bjeCtlVe~ instead of evaluating makrng process in detail: the three main inputs them, and (2) the stud~es tend to emphasize to the decision (external and internal pressures.

quantifiables to the point of discount~ng and community characteristics) and the deci-

qualitative aspects. '

son-making process Itself.

Many state avlation agencles are involved External Pressures in planning statewise airport systems. Criteria External pressures on the community to for measuring airport need dlffer from state to alter ~ t s policy toward general aviation services state and sometimes between the states and the influence the local decision-making process.

FAA. Ohio and Georgia, for example, had a Such pressures arise from government plan- hlgh rate of success in conv~ncing local com- ners, special interest groups, economic factors, munltles that every county needed ~ t s own air- and legal restrictions. The community should port. The alrport plan for Vlrgin~a uses popula- be aware of the nature of these inputs so that tion, income, and rate of growth of an area as they may be evalua!ed as to which are principal measures for determining the need for unavoidable, which may be modifled, and to air fac~lltles " what degree they should be considered.

One example of commun~ty reactlon to Through comprehensive planning, federal.

state plannlng is the Cottage Grove State Air- state. and reg~onal aviation plannlng agencies port, owned by the State of Oregon. Board of Influence local general avlatlon policy. The Aeronautlcs. "Although Cottage Grove has one Federal Aviat~on Adm~nlstration (FAA) IS of the better general avlation alrpcrts i n responsible for the development of the airways Oregon, corrlmunlty acceptance of the airport IS system S~nce the FAA measures the need for low Many reasons for the antipathy of the com- airport improvement funds by the level of ac- munity are given, but the most frequently men- tlvity, some FAA offic~als tend to promote avia- t~oned reason is that many cltlzens of Cottage tion In small communities on the premise that Grove feel that the airport was forced on tile city the facilit~es are requ~red in order to generate by the Board of Aeronautics " the traffic necessary for "expansion." ' If the Port Authorctles, A~rport Comm~ss~ons, and other regional av~atlon b o d ~ e s Influence ' Steven E Rhoads Policy Analysis ~ f l fhe Federal Aviation Admin~sfration. (Lexlnglon D C Heath and Company 1974) p 24 general aviat~on development In the com- ' George P Howard A ~ r p o r f Econorn~c Planning.

mun~ty One solutlon to congesrion at hub air- (Carnbr~dge The MIT Press. 1974). p 425 ports has been peak prlclng, whlch tend: to ' Rhoads OD cit . p 28 price general aviatlon alrcraft out of the alrpon 'Talk by Jarnez Gray D ~ v l s ~ o n of Aeronautlcs. Cornrno~.

durlng peak hours The a~rport comm~ss~on's wealth of Vlrglnlr July 11 1975 answer to this situation IS to seek to establish ' Lane Counc~l of Governments Airport Needs Study, (HUD general av~atlon alrports close to urban cen- Projecl No Oregon P-145. January 19711, p 3 . 3 ters. Under ihose cond~t~ons, external pres- ' I b i d . P 108 draw criticism from advocates of the environ- sure for a community to acquire ti general avia- ment.

tion airport may come from a nearby congested hub airport that seeks a reliever airport. The Econom~c pressures can influence com- Minnesota Airport Commission, which was cre- munity decision-making with respect to general ated in 1943 to develop the airports in the Min- avlation services. Sometimes an ~ndustry will neapolis-St. Paul area, built a reliever airport at offer to locate in a community. on cond~tion that Ham Lake. The Los lngeles Department of Air- the local government provides adequdte ports decided on the basis of demand estimates general av~atlon facilities. A candy company lo- that it should build a reliever airport at the City cated in Clarksville. Virginia, only after the air-

of Palmdale. '

port it required had been constructed. " The National spocial interest groups such as City of Manchester, New Hampshire, negotl- aviation interests or environmentalists lobby on ated w ~ t h the Alr Force In order to provide the all levels in order to affect aviation policy. In an airport locat~on Insisted upon by the Marlan article entitled "The Fine Art of Communication Electric Company in order to establish its new with the Public." Barney Oldfield, an aviation plant. Two companies purchased private air- enthusiast, proposed that the desire for acquir- ports for industrial developn~ent in na~ghboring ing aviation facilities and the acceptance of the northwestern Virginia towns, and then not~fied consequences must be sold to the public under the commun~ties that they would require an air- the banner of p r o g r e ~ s . ~ The ' . . Transport As- port to sen 1 the~r corporate aircraft before they

sociation of America (represe r the air car-

would beam develo~ment. l2

-

riers) and the Aircraft Owners anc Pilots Asso- Funoing available from the federal and ciatioc (representing general av~ation) are the state governments or the a~rport commlsslon most effective lobbies on the nat~onal level can maka the acquislt~on of general avlatlon The General Aviat~on Manufacturers Associ- fac~l~tiss more attractive to the commun~ty.

ation seeks to persuade Industry and the com- Federal assistance to airports has long been munity that "business aircraft are an essential rel~ed on, through a history of federal ~nvolve- component of America's economic machinery ment In avlation, and such st~bsldy programs as and a significant contr~butor to the nation's the Federal Aid to A~rports Program, the A~rport economic well-be~ng." l C As the construction of Development Aid Program, and a~rport access new airport facilities affects the env~ronment.

~mprovements through highway fundlng; as national environmental groups become in- well as r,ia~ntenance of the alr trafflc control terested in projects whlch have the potential for system and air veh~cle and new alrport cer- adverse ecological consequences. National tif~cat~on. l 3 The Commonwealth of Virglnla IS conservation groups so aroused the general lnvolved In the fund~ng and operation of air- public that the plans for the new Miami ports through the D~v~slon of Aeronaut~cs of the Everglad,- 'stport were halted General avla- State Corporat~on Commission whlch is the tion airpor:;. if planned near critical areas of agent for federal and state funds for county and the environment such as wetlands, would also munlcl~al a~reorts, and the Virainla Alrmrts

- ~ u t h o r i t ~ . whicn has the powe;to b u l l i and

' Gary H Lanter, Cornrnunrty Opposrtron In Arrporl Develop operate airports. ' 4 ment (Cambr~dge Massachusetts lnst~tute of Technology 1972,.

PO 185,108 If Virginia bel~eved that a panicular area ' Angelo J Cerch~one, el a / . Masrer Plannrng the Avratron needed a general aviat~on airport, it could pro- Envrronment. (Tucson The Unlverslh, of Ar~zona Press 1970), p vide part~al or total fundlng. In Tennessee, 1 38 funds for airpct construction are available from * Rhoads. cp crt . P 39 both the Tennessca Department of Transporta- ' O GAMA, Arrplanes Are Busrness Tools, p 3 tion, Bureau of Aerc ~autics, and the Ap- I ' lnterv~ew w ~ t h Tom Ferguson of P~edmont A v ~ a t ~ o n at Nor- palachian Regional Commission Is Airport folk Reg~onal A~rpofl. Nodolk. V ~ r g l n ~ a . .June 26. 1975 commissions may be self-supporting dnd could Federal A v ~ a t ~ o n Ajmln~strat~on Eastern Reg~on General Avratron and Its Relahonshrp lo Industry and the Communrty be in a posi'lon to provide for new aviat~on (Jama~ca. New York May 1. 1962 Rev~sed February 28. 1963. A p r ~ l fac~lities without community financing. The 7. 1964). PP 33. 24-5 commission may, for example, issue revenue '' Department of Transportat~on @ , ~ d Natlcnal Aeronaut~cs bonds to prov~de ~eeded funds, on the condi- and Space Admlnlstratlon Clvrl Avralr~,n Research and Develop men! Policy SludpSuppoflrng Papon. (Washlngton. D C March.

tion that income from the airport will be used to 1971). p 6 4 2 retire them.I6 " Va Code Ann 55 5 1-46. 5 1-48 and 5 ' 5 6 to 5 1-76 Many states have created ieg~onal pla. - ' $ R O~xon Speas. Tennessee A~rpofl System Plan, Decem- ber, 1972 ; 23 nlng dlstrlcts. !yp~cally conslstlng of a con- '* Howard, op c11. p 248 tlguous group of c o u n t ~ e s w h ~ c h share ment. The safety regulations of the FAA estab- geos.aphic or economic characteristics. Plan- lish the minimum approach zones and bound- ning districts can be an important source of ex- ary conditions for the airport itself. l g Some ternal pressure on a community. This problem is discussed in some detail in Chapter IV with states control zoning in the airport interface, and others allow the local governments to do reference to conflicts between state and so. 20 One reason for proper zoning is to prevent regional planners slid the local communities airport encroachment, which can spawn nui- and citizens involved in airport planning for Roanoke, Virginia. sance suits and prohibit future airport expar,- sion. The right of a zosnmunity to use com- Legal restrictions on the aviation environ- prehensive rezoning procedures to avoid thi?

ment affect community planning processes problem was upheld in Santa Barbara, Califor- concerning general aviation. Regulations, nia. 2 1 The locality could also buy all of the land common law suits, and zoning options nust be needed for careful planning, and then either dealt with by every community which decides to rent the surrounding plots or sell them with build a general aviation airport.

restricted deeds.

The areas of ragulation which are most likely to influen~s general aviation airports are

Internal Pressures

energy, environmental, economic, and safety The impact of internal pressure on policy concerns. Comprehensive energy allocation decisions must be based on a number of plans are being explored by bo!h Congress and assumptions including: (1) that at least some the President. As the program of gasoline citizens play a role in both the formation and allocation in 1973-74 indicates, general avia- thc content of public policy; (2) that opinions tion fuel supplies ma), be restricted as crude oil are expressed by a variety of groups (in- becomes less available. 1 he community should dlviduals in many different ways with varying consider the fgel situation In estimating de- degrees of intensity); (3) the belisf that local po- mand for new transportation facilities.

litical decisi~n-making leads to an uneven dis- In addition to FAR Part 36 explained in tribution of rewards and disadvantages, de- Chapter II, the area of common law nuisance pending on such factors as the issue and affects the operation of airports. Those respon- groups involved in the decision-maklng sible for airplanes flying low over a person's prcecss.

property are liable to t?e property owner for any An application of these assumptions to the diminution in the value of his property brought field of policy analysis, including the generhl

about by the airplanes' noise. " The Los

aviation flsld, suggests that citizens often have Angeles city httorney estimated that potential little positive policy impact. Past studles have damage claims based on nuisance caused by demonstrated that the general ptlblic has no the city cirport could cost the city $4.5 billion knowledge of. or opiqicns about, many public These suits primarily concern jet noise, but it is policy questions. Ever. 'J.0. Key. who was con- possible that a substantial amount of general vinced that mass prelcrences have an impact aviation traffic could breed nuisance su~ts for a on policy was forced to conclude "that the sup- commun~ty-operated general aviation airport.

position the! public opinion enjoys weight in Throuch the use of available zoning pro- public decisions IS a myth and nothing more.

cedures. the community may establish an air- albeit a myth that strengthens a reglme as long port which is In harmony with the local environ- as people believe it." 2 2 In the same context.

-

lank ~ u n g e r . in sn analysis of five policy

" R~chard A Posner Econom~c Analfsii of Law. (Boston areas about whlch people have some opinions.

L~ttle. Brown and Company 19721, p 26 concluded that the chances of a state matching '' The A v ~ a t ~ o i Adv~sory Comm~ss~on The Long Range Needs of Aviatron. (Washington D C The Government Prlnt~ng 01- the pollcy preferences of its citizens is only a f~ce. 197;) p 14 little better than 50-50. " '' Cerch~one, op c11, p 197 It is apparent that the political system fre- 'W Floyd Sherrod. Jr ed Env~ronmenf Law Review-- quently does not act In congruence wlth the 1973. (New York Clark Boardman Company 1973) p 387 388 preferences of the general public and that some '' Smith v C L of Sanfa Barbara, 243 A C A 126. 52 Cal Rprt 292 D~st Ct A ~ D 2nd Dtst (19661 individuals have influence disproport~onate to " V 0 Key Jr Public Opinion and American Democracy.

their numbers. 24 Policy In this context reflects (New York Knopf 1967) p 411 !he preferences of an elite and flows downward " Frank Mur~ger O p ~ n ~ o n s Elect~ons Part~t s and from the ellte to the massas. This does not im- P o l ~ c ~ e s A Cross.State .\nalys~s ' paper del~vered at the annual meetlng of the Amer~can P o l ~ t ~ c a l S c ~ e n ~ e Asscc~atlon NY 1969 oly that publlc policy resulting from elite preferences is necessarily anti-mass lr not in " Thomas R Dye and Harmon Z~egler T.?e Irony of Democ- racy. (Belmont Wadsworth. 197U) the public interest, since i t IS posslble that values of the elite may be public-regarding and segment of the populi ticn. This limited political not private-regarding. Thus, the slita may feel constltuency inhibits aviation supporters from responsible for the welfare of the masses.

translating their desires into market denands.

In general, one c t ? safely assume that "the The elite model of decision-makin5 has overall attitude of the community toward air- also been appl~od to the study of local :om- ports is invariably negi?ti~e."~' This attitudinal munities. Various researct~ers have indicated

problem would not be as rea at in an upper class

that communities vary in their degree of elitism community as in a comlnuility comprised of depending on such factors as the size of the working class individual^.^^ community and the degree of community in- tegration. 25 In many communit~es policy deci- A second difficulty in assessing the de- sions can best be viewed as a product of the in- mand for general aviation in a given con~munlty teractions of the members of the elite. Depend- lies in the nature of general aviatlon itself.

ing on the policy are? .:,en, t h ~ s product might General aviation, which encompasses all be ratified by the massib.

civilian aviation activipj except that associated Although none of thes? studies has dealt with the operation of GAB-certified air carriers.

with general aviation policy, a reasonable has a serious identicy problem. George Coker assumption is that the elite model would also wrois ins: "the rcie of General Aviation can apply to this area of decision-making. Chuiim best be described as 'filling in the gaps' left by is required, however, in applying this mode! to !ne common carrier airline services." He the community's support and the use of general argued that the importance of general aviation aviation for at least three reasons. Flrst, COrri- is not readily recognized because: (a) the in- munitles vary great!y In their economic and dustry is composed of many uncoordinated soclo-political makeup. Second, general avia- segments; (5) the magnitude and glamour of tlon includes a wlde range of act~vities. Thlrd, the certificated airline induslry; and (c) the general aviatlon actlv~ty has not developed as a reluctance of the vast majority of large corpora- coherent pol~cy field tions to publicize their ownerc' ' 3 and use of business aircraft.29 The variation in com~r~unity tvoes and - ., characteristics has been shown in numerous A study conducted by the Opinion Re- studies which have classified commu~ities by search Corporation in June, 1973 indicated their demographic, social, and economic that a majority of the general publlc (59 per- characterist~cs. 26 One would expect. for exam- cent) has not heard the term "general avlatlon" ple, upper-mlddle class comm* vities with a and that most of those who have heatd the term technically orlented economic base to generate equate general avlation with alr travel in a greater economlc demand and political pres- general, despite the finding that 41 percent ~f sure for all types of general aviation includ~ng thzm claim to have flown In a private or busi- business flying, commercial flylng, and ness plane or used a commuter servlce p!~asure fly~ng, than would lower class com- Nevertheless, most members of the public - unities with a general industrial tax base and agree that general av'ztlon provides many large numbers of blue collar workers. Agaln.

benefits such as: emergency servlce (95 Fer- many individuals are convinced that general cent). jcbs (95 percent), and industrial growth avlation is of irportance only to those in the (76 perceit) Thbs, although members of the upper socio-econom~c levels Thus, an at- general !~ubllc are not kr~owledgeable about titudinal factor constralnlng the development of what comprises general avlati~tn, they ex- general aviatidn is thc? widespread conviction pressed positive vlews about ~ t s Impact once that air transport IS important to only a small the o o l l ~ n ~ team def~ned cieneral avldtlon to the 1nte;viewees. One can conclude that the pres- sure for gene121 aviation IS probably created by '% Nelson Polsby Communrf) Power and Folrtrcal Theory.

community leaders or a srnall group of in- (New Haven Yale Unlverslty Press, 1973) dividuals elther from ~nslde o t outslde the com- " Robert L~neberry and Ira Sharkansky Urban Polrtrcs and Publrc PoBcy. IEnglewood Clltts N J Prentl-2 Hall, 1974) munlty In sum the development of general " Jolnl DOT-NASA Study C l v ~ l Av~altori Research afid avlatlon IS frequently constraiced by the lack of Development Polrcy Sludy. March 1971 pp 6-4 and 6-6 broad, and supportive, cuns!ltuency. It shol~ld "Jeremy J Warford Publrc Polrcy Toward General Avia- be kept In mind, however, that the size of a con- Iron. (Wash~nglon D C Brook~ngs lnst~tut~on 1971 I Vltuency In a policy area may pot Le as Impor- " A v ~ a t ~ o n L3vlsory Comm~ss~on. General Av~afion. (Janu- tant as the characterlstlcs of that constltuency ary 1 1973) 2 C - y l Frequently a small group, which IS well- IC O p ~ n ~ o n Research Corporation General Avrdlidn Today.

(Princeton N J June. 19731 organized and hlgh in soclo-economic status.

can exercise authority disproportionate to its of government should have greater discretion numbel 3. in the spendlng of funds, leads to further confu- sion since the combination of local transporta- A tt lrd problem in assessing the demand tion policies does not necessarily lead to any for general avlatlon is the lack of a national type of national policy.

transportatlon policy. According to a study commissioned b;' the Aviation Advisory Com- The above discussion has distinguished mission.the transportatlon pollcy of the United between the mass public and the various States can best be described as specific publics involved in the development of general aviation activity. Another distinction, . a patchwork of d ~ s o r d e r l y based on the propensity to use general aviation transportation policies which are an agglomeration of explic~t s~atutory a;so should be made. This is the distinction be- provis~orrs and implicit approaches. tween the consumers of service and the non- resulting from usually unstated consumers. Rai Okarnoto, a member of the assumptions. changing social Aviation Advisory Commission, has classified pr~oritles. and scattered responses the nonconsumers into two groups.'' First, to random developments over the those who use the system but do not want to be years. National transportation disturbed by it once they are on the ground.

'policies' are better revealed in This group uses air services but at the same what is done, or not done, than in time is very concerned about avoiding its nega- what is said." tive impacts. This group can be compared to automobile drivers who drive their cars but do The lack of a transportation policy system.

not want expressways located close to their which IS reflected In the general confusion homes The !mmnd group of nonconsumers is about the proper role of the various levels of comprised of those who rarely or never use the government in general aviation, Increases the system. This group could be composed of the d i f f ~ c ~ l t y of attempting to determine the de- community's taxpayers who use other modes of rrtanl !or general aviation activity. It is. for ex- transportation on a daily basis. To them, an air- ample. difficult to measure the Impact of mass port is something exotic and perhais not publlc oplnlon on pollcy when the policy IS not necessary. Transportation problems are viewed clearly known. There is little evidence that in terms of highways and i x a l mass transit.

mass opinion 1 s an important 1ndeper3ent Consequently. they w o u l ~ not be in favor of the oetermlnant of pubkc policy, particularly in a developmect of general a,l~atior, facilities.

policy area as vague as general iation.

Evidence suggests that g-neral aviation The lack of natlonal policy has been one proponents are usually the only members of the fzctor whlch has led the fedaral government to public involved in the initial stages of airport adopt ihe approach tha; poiicy decis~ons development. Only when specific issues are put shodld be decentralized and made by locdl In the context of the decision-making process.

uwts of gotlernment The advocates use of do other individuals and groups become in- spec~al revenue-shar~ng funds for transporta- volved. These groups. which are usually com- tion p!;nnlng does lrttle to solve this lack of posed of res~dents near the proposed facility, direciion The revenue-sharing approach.

generally play a negative rol-they want to whlch is basea on the principle that local units stop something (an airport) from happening.

This negative role of various community groups ' It shculo be kepf In m ~ n d however tha the sfre of a con- is demonstrated most clearly in the environ- stftuencv in a pollcy area may nu: 5e as important as the charac- mental assessment review process in which terlstics ,1! that constituency krw~en:ly a m a l l group whtch is well--.;dntzed and high In Soc#o-eccnornlc Slatus can exercls local citlzens become involved only once cer- authorlt dlsprop;rtlonate w ~ l h 11s numbers T h ~ s corcept IS tain basic decisions about the facility have developed bv Dav~d B Truman The Governmental Process (New York Knopf 1951) General avlafton poll. y may be the nsult of ellre been made. Clearly, citizens frequently lack the preferences and not the preferences of the masses Sea for exam.

resources to participate effectively against the ple Thomas R D j t and Harmon Z~egler. rne Irony of Democracy.

proponents of the airport who have the money (Beimont Wsdsworth. 1970) and/or expertise to obtain the facility.

' Richard J Barber Report on Natronal Transportatton Polrcres--Part 1. Analysts and Trends. iL S Departmen! cf Com- The response of the political system to the merce Nat~onal Techn:cal lnformat~on Service September 1971) demand for specific actlons, such as the growth '' Avlatlon Adv~wry C3mrn1ss1on. Avratron In a Long-Range Publrc Plannrng Context Febrdaty 15 1973 p 44 or establishment of general aviatlon actlvlties.

"Andrew J Wlnfrey Joseoh C Corradlno and Charles Can only be understood by recognizing that SchlmWler. ' b v e l o ~ l n g An E ~ v l r o m m n t a l A S . S ~ ~ S W ~ I Report For po/ltics involves the distribution of rewards and a Reg~ona! A~rport-Industrial Complex ' Transmrlatron Research Record. m (Wash~ngton. D c 1975) disadvantages. One must recognize that transportation pol~cy. particularly from the van- Community pride is a significant reason for tage of the local community, does not con- seeking general aviat~on services because stitute a set of coherent directions. It is mpst many ind~viduals. particularly elected officials.

probably no more than the sum of actions taken attach a great value to being in a progressive in response to the expressed demands of community. George P. Coker, Vice-President of various segments of the community at various Airport Services for the Southwest Airmotive tlmes. Although decision-makers engage in Company. used thls type of rationale whjn he broad activities such as organizing, rank~ng suggested that communities without jeneral priorities, and allocating costs and benefits, aviation services "may find themselves out- they also tend "to respond positively to every manuevered by competitive commun~ties." 39 demand without worrying about the total costs In addition. the airport as a phys~cal entity is a or total berdits (consequences)or considering spec~fic thing leaders of the community can alternatives." l5 In addition. the political system point to when discussing their achievements.

functions in a way that enables the definer of Second, some cotnmun~ties seek airports the problem to set the agenda for action and to due to their isolation from certain markets or play the key role In formulating the solutions to services. These commun;ties do not want an the problem. l6 Giver, the fact that the meaning airport for business reasons. or for community of the term "general aviation" is not clearly un- prestige, but desire air services because other derstood by the general publ~c, one would ex- modes of transportat~on are either unavailable pect the aviation support to be in many cases or impractical the only initial ir,fluence on the policy-making Third. communities want an airport to process.

further their economic develop~nent. These In some cases. such as In the development communities. which are probably governed by of the Creswell. Oregon airport. the airport IS city administrations embodying a growth desired by a narraw group of users. According philosophy. desire an airport to provide a ser- to a local study. "the original purpose of the vice for the industrial business community Creswell Alrport was to meet the general avla- which is probably located (or to be located) In tion rieeds for pilots In the Creswell area." The an Industrial park area within the comnunity's study indicated that aviation~sts involve local boundaries. Assessing the economic impact of government to qual~fy for federal a ~ d and warns a proposed airport is a cornpl~cated matter. The that "local governments must be aware that airport alone is unlikely to draw new industry general aviation a~rports are expensive." 3 7 Into a local~ty unless many other a3ractlve com- The des~re to fulfill the speclfic demands of munity character~st~cs exist as well. The role of airports in econornlc development is discussed av~ation~sts is not the most frequently ex- pressed bas6 on wh~ch a community's need for later in this chapter air servlce is justified. A recent workshop on The supposed economic advantages of air- low/medium density air transportatio~ con- port development are an important part of the cluded that communities just~fy their need on arguments used by those who attempt to pro- four bas~c ground%community pride. eco- mote community interest in. and pressure for.

nomic development. population dispers~on.

general aviation services. Many members of the and isolat~on. j8 community have to be sold on general aviation because of its lac;: of identity In the puSlic mind - or other nagative factors mentioned above. The " See W ~ l l ~ a m Mltchell The Amencan Policy. (New York Free Press 1962) for a dlscuss~on of dec~s~on-mak~ng The quote IS persuaders may be outs~ders or members of the taken from Norman Wengert ' Polltl~al and Adm~n~strat~ve Real~t~es commun~ty One prom~nent proponent of avla- of Reg~onal Transportat~on Plannlng In Joseph De Salvo ed Perspectives on Regions1 Transportatron Dlanning ILex~ngton tion development is Norman Crabtree, Ohio's Mass D C Heath 1973) p 381 Av~at~on Director. who d ~ d a "glgant~c selling " Vrengert op cit p 382 lob to drum up community interest " As a result

'' Lane CobnclI of Government Airport Needs Study. bf h l ~

''community .splrlt blossomed with Eugene Oregor January 1971 pp 36 and 47 the excellen! help and footwork performed by Joseph V~ttek ed Arr Servrce ro Small Communities SerVICe groups, lncludlng the K1wanls. Lions.

Dlrecfions for the Future Final Report of the Wornchop on LO,, Medium DB,~SIIY Air Transportatfon. Cambridge M I T Flight and Rotary ' ' O In a communltv in another state iransportatlon ~aboiatory February 1974) PP 39-41 the demand for a new alrport also came from a "George P Coker 'General Avlatlgn In Our Air Transpor- local service organization. the Jaycees. who tallon System In Airports Challenges of the Future. Anerlcan were successful In "sweeping the cobwebs Soc~ety 01 C I V I I Eng~neers p 133 away from communlt~ Inertla and set a record ,.Don W Farnsworth The ohto County Airport story, 1966.1972 State 01 O ~ I O . Department of h m m e r c e . Ulvlslon of for amblt~on and ingenuity." W~thout expen- Av~atlon, p 24 lished in an area without suitable airport diture of public funds. the community has an alrport due to the efforts of ' several dozen men facil~t~es." (Oneonta established an airport In 1966. Despite a mlld increase in population.

who took the time and effort to learn that an in- expensive. satisfactory airport development however. the work force of the city In manufac- project could be both possible and prof~ta- turing fell from 800 to 537 between 1960 and 1970.) In a similar situation. the Sunbeam Cor- ble." " poration agreed to locate in Forest. Mississipp~.

The involvement of local service organiza- only when the city agreed to bulld an adequate tions In developing aviation activity for the eco- general aviation airport.

nomic benefit of the commun~ty is indicated in The cases c~ted above indicate that the im- other examples of how communit~es have started airport plannlng projects. The city man- petus to alrport development often comes from ager of La Crosse. Kansas predicted that the the bus~ness community of a given clty. Busi- small towns "will have to have an airport. just ness leaders are concerned with the economic costs of general aviation activity although the like they needed a railroad in the old days" to social costs may be of significance equal to the s u ~ i v e . ~ The following examples are taken from an FAA report." Lincoln, Rhode Island aonomic ones. At the same time. one must be developed an airport study because the city's careful not to attribute benefits to general avia- t ~ o n which the speclfic aviation activity did not chamber of commerce detected "intense enthusiasm for such a project." In Manchester. cause. A preliminary analys~s of the Quaker- New Hampshire the "city did not at first recog- town, Pennsylvania and the Mannontown. New Jersey projects indicated that general aviation nize the importance of the new airport to future led to high levels of prosperity: however. a later c ~ t y development." Later. however. the owner of Marlan Electric Company "felt so strongly examination of t L ~ s e communities indicated about improving the economy of the area that that both communities would have had high levels of prosperity. regardless of the ex~stence he donated one-half million dollars" to develop an airport. Once agaln. the cor~imunity was de- of gensial av~ation activities thee. '5 scr~bed as "giving whole-hearted support to While the initial mternal pressure for the the airport development." Springfield. Vermont acquisition of general aviation facilities also felt a need to provide aviation facilities and generally stems from the local avlationists or responded by obtaining funds from the state the bus~ness community. other internal pres- leg~slature and frdm industries and individuals sures. both for and against suc;, acquisit~on are with~n the town. The FAA commented that l~kely to develop as plans become more con- "such an expression of fa~th and conf~dence on crete and more certain of implementat~on Such the part of industry and outstanding citizens in pressures w ~ l l appear to public a u t h r ~ t ~ e s to Springfield underscores the economic signifi- have arisen out of the blue. and the authorities' cance which the donors attach to th~s facility."

react~on to the new pressures may well be an Sim~lar support by the economic interest of the important factor In the strength of new opposl- community was also expressed in Hayward.

t~on. C~t~zens who belleve an alrport IS being California; lslip. Long Island, New York; and, forced on them on behalf of a spec~al Interest South Plainfieid, New Jersey. A different case group may show intense hostility :o an a~rport in point, but one which also shows the s~gnifi- where none existed before. Consequently.

cant role of the business cornmunlty In airport authorities must make some effort in the initial development is Oneonta. New York, which planning stages to consider the goals and failed to attract industry because of its lack of values of cit~zens who have not yet voiced an aviat~on fac~l~ties. One firm "did not visi!

opinion about the airport. Th~s will be done if Oneonta due to a lack of an a~rport." Another decis~on-makers use the criter~on of "need" f~rm "rejected the area because it felt that too within the context of relevant community much time would be wasted and high travel ex- character~stics in their initial decis~on as to pense would result i f a new plant were estab- whether or not the comml;~ity needs better ac- cess to general aviation services.

" Bascom Nelson "An A~rport for a Small Town Flyrng.

(May. 19621 Vol 70 No 5 pp 74 80 64 and 86 The a~rporl was prov~ded w~thouf expondlture of publlc funds Community Characteristics " lbrd The decision-maker who must make a " Av~at~on Advisory Comrnlss~on. The Long Range Needs c f prelim~nary deterimination as to whether or not Avretr~n .'anuary 1973 p 10 there is a community need for improved general " General Avrahon and Its Relatronshrp to Industry and ',ie av~ation services faces that decision because of Cornmunrly. op crt pp 30-45 some pressure, internal or external, for those " lbrd characteristics such as density. income, and services. The decision to pursue the matter age structure should be considered in com- must, however. take into account not only those bination with the community's population size pressures for public action and the expenditure of public money but also the degree of willing- In an attempt to arrive at that threshold figure.

ness and ability to purchase general aviation Population density (i.e., persons per services (econom~c demand) and the extent to square mib) can also be a determinant of com- which the acquisition of facilities supports, hin- munity types. The range is large but there ap- ders, or ;s unrelated to community ggals and pears (at least regionally) to be a positive cor- objectives.

relation between aircraft ownership and lower The "community" is defined for the pur- levels of pooulation density. Lower levels of population density figures imply a degree of poses of this study as a group of individuals liv- ing within a specific spatial unit. These in- rurality or agricultural activity. The degree of dividuals possess a feeling of. or in fact have. rurality versus urbanization can be an impor- common objective economic, social, or politi- tant consideration in assessing some types of cal bonds. These objective bonds are. indeed. general aviation services. Agricultural areas the characteristicsof the community that define may make use of. for example. crop dusting, spraying. and seeding services.

its fixed or political boundaries, its sphere of economic influence or its social interaction Still within the realm of demographic con- space. This so-called "community of interest" sideration. the age structure and rate of p~pula- encompasses a wide range of political. eco- tion change. also have direct bearing upon nomic. and social activities. The type and general aviation service demand. Usually.

breadth of each of these classes of activity general aviat~on services tend to be used with del~mits the extent of the interaction space greater consistency by younger populations.

called "community."

The community's relative rate of population In the broadest sense. the nation. region.

growth or decline can also be indicative of eco- state. SMSAs, cities, towns. or villages are nomic conditions and hence general aviation communities. But at the local levels each com- services need. A stagnant or deciining popula- munity is defined. obviously. within the local tlon is less likely to elicit effective demand for framework and context of the individual in- general aviation services than a growing or Sta- teraction space and community characteristics.

Me population base (unless one accepts the In turn. the decision-making process in argument that general aviatlon is a godsend to general. and the decision-making process with end economic debility).

regard to general aviation services in particu- The community'seconomic characteristics lar, is related tc indiv~dual community charac- are not unrelated to. and. in fact. determ~ne.

teristics. Siqnificant community characteristics some of its demographic and social charac- will be discussed in terms of their relevance to teristics. There is. for example. considerable the general aviation services decision-making difference in the quality of life and lire-style be- process.

tween communities having a balanced or diver- Once the community has been defined sified economic base and communities d m i - from the viewpoint of general aviation services, nated by one economic activity. Regardless of i.e.. the area to be served by a proposed or ex- these differences. all communities can be ex- istlng general aviation facility. certain amined within a framework of basic economic demographic characteristics can be con- factors. Those factors to be examined in sidered. Population size. structures. density.

assessing a community's economic base rela- and rate of change appear to be important tive to general aviation services are income.

variables In the determination of the need for education levels, employment sectors.

general aviation services. For example, there unemployment rate. Industrial mix, tax base is. perhaps, a threshold populat~on for each and tax rate. land values. degree of agricultural service industry below which the sewice will activity, and markets. All of these variables ap- not be provided. In Virginia, for example, there pear to be correlated positively to general akia- are presently only eight airport facilities serving tion service need. For example. communities areas with populations of less than 50,000 per- which are market~ng or institutional centers sons. The exact number of persons required (and therefore possess below average in- before general aviation services can be pro- dustrial employment) are more likely to gener- v~ded is an elusive figure. Other community ate traffic than are industrial or "balanced" centers. ' 6 John A Nammack. "A~rpoRs and The~r Econom~c Irn- Many of the factors mentioned are related pact." Airport Services Management, November 1971 to each other. One of the most important is in- makers. No generalizations can or should be come. High levels of per capita income, median drawn at this point.

family income, and disposable income directly

Making The Preliminary Decision

impact general aviation service demand and availability. In other words, income levels can The factors involved i n making the provide a valid indication of a communi~!'s preliminary decision about general aviation ability to support general aviaticn services.

services are presented in schematic form in Chapter V. The lists found there are drawn from All of the community characteristics ex- the analyses presented ;n the foregoing sec- pressed above are quantifiable. Various United tions of : ~ e present chapter. The preliminary States Bureau of the Census publications (Cen- decision is whether or not to begin serious sus of Population, Census of Manufacturing, planning for the acquisition of general aviation Census of Business, Census of Agriculture, services. If and when such a plan is under- etc.) provide general, and in some cases taken, all the relevant factors will be considered detailed. information about the community.

more thoroughly than they are in this prelimin- Other community characteristics are of a ary stage. As will be evident, there exist some less tangible nature. Individual community methods for estimating the future economic de- "goals" as perceived by the members of the mand for general aviat~on services in the com- community are often immeasurable but are munity. Much more difficult to assess is the nevertheless real. Depending upon the power future degree of political support and opposi- structure, i.e.. those setting, establishing. and tion. Without political discussion or controver- carrying out policy, these goals can vary widely sy in a community the decision-maker has from place to place and time to time. At one ex- difficulty in discovering community goals. In treme is the "no-growth" or stability policy. At the case of general aviation. the community in- the other extreme is the more common "bigger put to the decision-maker is primarily informal is better" approach to community developmen;.

in nature and restricted to a relatively small in which steady and continual expansion of the number of individuals favoring general aviation economic base is deemed &?sirable. Individual development (i.e.. aviationists and the business goals at both poles and at intermediate posi- community). The major input from the public at tions, should be assessed as they intuitively large IS apathy, rather than either support or op- become a part of the decision-making process position.

concerning general aviation services. One One can safely predict that this general should keep in mind, too, that different ele- commun~ty apathy will only be awakened and ments of the community may harbor or avow become non-support if controversies arise con- contradictory "community goals."

cerning the social and environmental Impacts Many of the same factois which indicate of the airport facility andtor the financing of the the likelihood of demancl for general avlation new or expanded facility. The decision-maker service provide clues to community goals.

should attempt to foresee such possible Goals are likely to vary with socio-econom~c developments as ehrly as possible. It IS difficult.

class and education. Age can be an important however, to generalize in this area because of a variable: the goals of a largely-retired com- number of recent political events. whlch have munity will differ considerably from tho= of changed. at least to some extent. the ~nterac- "young-marrieds." In addition. history and tion patterns of elites and masses. The most geography may play a role. Long-term resi- significant of these are the growing suspicion dents are likely to have the goals of their about the bureaucracy, the questioning of the parents. Communities near metropolitan areas supposed benefits of technological advance- may seek to become growth centers in opposi- ment, the uncertainty about the type of growth t~on to the spreading metropolis or they may or no-growth pollcy a community should prefer to serve as "bedroom" communities.

assume, the demand by citizens for self-deter- Implicit in the above is the realization that mination, and the requirement that citizens be all pertinent communlty characteristics in rela- involved in planning decisions. These events tion to the general aviation services decision- clearly impact on the development of general making process are totally relative to each In- aviation. Citizens have frequently banded dividual communlty as defined by its declsion- together through "political mobilizat.on" to

stop the expanslon of airport facilities. '' In

" Nwlns Banter E Ph111p Howry and Rudolph Penner mobilizing, the clt~zens have challeng~d the Publrc Investment In General Avretron Atrporfs An Appl~catron of view-generally shared by bureaucrats-that Cost-Benehf Economrcs (Federal Av~atlon Adm~n~stratlon. Wash- the publ~c bureaucracy lnvolved with airport lngton D C . May 1 1967 planning and operations is necessarily acting (b) Pleasure flying in the public interest. a In the mobilization pfo- (c) Utility flying cess, certain special publics, not the mass Emergency value (human life and (2) public, demand accountability. The proponents property) of airport development must show what the costs and benefits involved in the development (a) Natural disaster (earthquakes,

are. In addition, many members of the public no floods, wind, weather)

longer readily accept claims of efficiency nor (b) Crime control and law enforce- do they believe that the expansion of technical ment facilities, such as airports, is always a means of (c) Riots and civil disturbance progress. In brief, the costbenefit calculus no (d) Rescue and life saving longer includes only the more readily quantifia- (8) Forest fire fighting ble economic costs but also social costs and (f) Business decisions value orientations. 4e (g) Food drops for animals; other forms of remote resupply Rai Y. Okamoto, a member of the Aviation (h) Ambulance service Advisory Commission, noted that "evidence (i) Industry equipment and repairs continuedto mount that aviation's failures were inextricably bound to those of a non-aviation or National defense value (3) institutional nature. One must reasonably (a) Pilot training and atailability assume that air transportation is only one (b) Saving in military ai,zraft through means to achieve a goal, although many of the joint sharing of aircraft develop- statements made by its proponents do not ment and production costs reflect this. At the same time, the proponents (c) Value to wartime combat use often fail to use a systemic perspective in their (d) Civil Air Patro!

evaluation of the need for airports Airport pro- (e) Efficient and productive plant ponents must realize that the public is not a operations during war time passive element in the system, that technical Promotion or stimulation of air carrier mystique is no substitute for publ,; support.

(4) and that the public may also have its own goals flying (ticket sales).

which are quite inconsistent with the goals of Entertainment value ( 5 ) the airport development proponents. At the (a) Value to general aviation passen- same time, the proponents of further develop gers (in terms of gratification): ment should realize that the negative and posi- (1 ) Air shows tive impacts of aviation activity are unevenly

(2) Radio. N , movies

distributed within a given community, and that (3) Vacation and resort area it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to development develop aviation activities without a willing (4) Sightseeing and otqer transpor- public.

tation modes Consequently, decision-makers must not (b) Value to entertainment industry respond simply to the pressures exerted by in- General business industry associated terest groups; they must justify proceeding with (6) with General Aviation Travel the planning process in terms of public interest.

The section on the impact of general aviation (a) Hotels discusses these issues in more detail, but at the (b) Ground transportation (taxi, preliminary stage one must ask what are the limousine, car rental, etc.)

beneficial impacts of general aviation on the (c) Air carrier helicopter services community. Some of the intangible, un- (d) Meals measurable impacts include: 171 Specific benefits related to General ,- # (1) Value of time saved (by passenger Aviation plus "domino effect") (a) Aorial photography and mapping (a) Business flying (b) Fish spotting and fish saving (c) Forest fire patrol * Roberl Horonjdf, The Planning and Deslgn of Alrporls.

(d) Power and pipe line patrol (New York: McOrsw Hill. 1962) (e) Corporation internal business a* Dorothy Nelkin. Jetport: The Boston Airporl Controversy.

aircraft management, mainte- (NW Brunwick. Transaction. Inc . 1974).

nance and operations, personnel U Aviation Adviwry Commission. Avlatlon In a Long-Range and expenses Publlc Plannlng Context, February 15. 1973. p 2.

TABLE 111-1

DEMAND MODELS APPLICATION TO FORECASTING AIRPORT USAGE

MODEL COMMENTS Direct Demand Good theoretical structure but calibration has not been Economic Demand Model fully tested and is limited because of the requirements of a large sample size.

McLynn Model Never fully tested in application.

Bauman-Quandt !Godel One of the few "abstract" mode models; good formula- tion, but has calibration problems.

Trip Generation Trip Generation Regression Model The most widely used trip generation technique. Used mostly by scheduled airlines in route planning.

Cross Classification Technique Computer programs exist. The model cross-classifies people (usually according to income, education, and occupation), and calculates a percentage used to determine usage.

Trip Distribution Growth Factor Distribution Models Simple to use. None of the models relate demand to ex- planatory factors. These models, however, have been -Uniform factor widely used or~ly because of their simplicity.

-Average factor -Detroit -Fratar Gravity Model Used widely by scheduled airlines for planning new flights.

(8) Related business development The benefits of general aviation cited above only become meaningful once they are (a) Development of industry near interpreted in terms of the specific benefits general aviat~on airports (facto- various local community people think are to be ries and plants) derived from this activity. These benefits are (b) Development of geographically dependent upon the goals a community seeks isolated areas (mining, 011, timber) to achieve.

Incentive to foreign businesses who (9) The questions of intangib!es-community then emulate, interact with, and goals and community support-have been dealt stimulate United States business, in- with first because they are the most difficult to cluding their second order effect in think about. The question of expected usage of generating facilities and services.

general aviation services-economic de- (10) National prestige (growing fleets of mand-is more straightforward.

aircraft in under-developed coun- Forecasting Demand tries).

Economic demand forecasting is essential (1 1) Social cohesion and unity through in- for the proper planning and evaluation of com- creased avenues of personal contact munity alternatives. According to the FAA Ad- and communication.

vlsory Circular AC 15015070-6 on airport master (12) Political benefits derived from the plans, forecasts of usage are required in four of positive influences of relative stability the five planning phases. Because of their im- and growth in income and employ- portance, and because they have not been ment, and foreign trade impact. s' thoroughly analyzed, it is important first to dis- cuss presen! approaches and techniques for " R D~xon Speas Assoc~ates. TheMagnrtudeand Economrc estimating economic demand in a community lmpacr of General Avration. 1968-1980, (Manhasset. New York Aero House. 1970). pp 141-142 planning context.

Forecast G.A. activity for the continental United

I

Calculate state forecasts for future time periw.~, t, Based upon past history calculate

as each state's D/o of G.A. activity

u

I

Calculate regions forecast for future time periods Based upon past history calculate each region's % of the state's .IC G.A. activity rs ft = (rs) (sFt)

THE TOP-DOWN METHOD Based upon ft estimate, on the basis of national

averages, the various projections needed such as

OF FORECASTING

the number of based aircraft, aircraft mix, opera- tions, emplaned passengers, air cargo, etc.

FIGURE 3 3

Table 111-1 presents a general view of ex~st- share is then forecast into the future and ad- ing models applicable to forecasting demand justed for differences in growth patterns be- for the services offered at an airport, along with tween those of the state in question and the na- commsnts on the model itself. tion as a whole. For example, if a state is ex- pected to grow at a faster rste than the nation, In application the most widely used pro- the state will be projected to have a larger cedures are the growth factor distribution future share of the national fleet of licensed models in a top-down fashion. Figure 3-3 charts aircraft. It then becomes possible to calculate this approach. The first box requires estimating the projected licensed aircraft in the state (sFt) general aviation activity for the United States as as the product cf the future national forecast a whole. The measure used is usually the num- and the future expectad share for the state.

ber of licensed aircraft or aircraft operations. A For each subregion :'~ithin the state, the forecast of licensed aircraft (Ft) is obtained by same type of calculation can be made, by again regressing the number of aircraft against adjusting for differential growth rates among historical values of such independent variables regions. T h ~ s yields the local forecast of as time, population, and per capita income, and licensed aircraft.

forecasting the future value of these variables.

On the basis of the total number of licensed The second step is to estimate, on the basis local aircraft, the aircraft mix, the number of of historical data, the share of a given state of the national general aviation acitvity (Ps). This takeoffs and landing, or the number of enplaned passengers, the last step is to esti- C. Special Community Services mate breakdowns for each category at some 1. Emergency designated future date. Information can be ob- 2. Law enforcement tained by using national averages for such 3. Environmental management values as the percentage of single engine D. Recreational aircraft or the number of operations performad 1. Flying by a certain type of licensed aircraft. By 2. Other multiplying the projection of licensed aircraft E. Based Aircraft by these averaba figures, forecasts of the ex- These categories are discussed in detail in pected numbers of single engine aircraft or a later section of this chapter. They will be operations to be performed on an airport can be briefly reviewed here. Transportation includes estimated.

the itinerant carriage of people or cargo by The procedure described here (and used in commercial air carrier, air taxi, air freight, or the Virginia Air Transportation System Study) business aircraft. Recreational service is potentially can lead to inaccurate projections basically local, but includes private flying to for several reasons. First, since the number of another point as well. Aircraft are used as in- operations is estimated on the basis of dustrial aids and for special community ser- forecasts of the number of based aircraft at an vices. The former includes crop dusting and airport, an error in forecasting the number of utility inspection, etc., while the latter covers based aircraft w c ~ l d be compounded in the such areas as traffic control, fire-spotting, and operations subsequently forecast.

air ambulance. The number of based aircraft Second, forecasts of operations depend will provide some estimate of the income to an cr.itically on the base-year level of operations airport.

assumed for each airport. At non-tower airports Formal forecasts can be done only for the the current estimated level of operations could transportation, based aircraft, and recreational be grossly in error. E3me method needs to be categories. The need for the services available used to determine accurately the number of in the industrial and community services operations at these airports (perhaps through categories is highly dependent on the nature of actual counts).

the community and its goals.

Third, present forecasts are often con- To project the economic demand for the ducted using data obtained prior to the occur- services listed above, it is necessary to develop rence of the energy cirsis and the current eco- a profile of the community involved in terms of nomic recession. Forecasts made using these its socio-economic and environmental charac- data should be adjusted accordingly.

teristics. This profile is composed of the follow- ing sets of data: Forecasting for Community Planning A. Demograph~c In its analysis for the need of general avia- 1. Population tion services, a community initially must 2. Density forecast the future use of such services and the 3. Age distribution returns that it can expect from the provision of 4. Rate of change of population these services. In determining needs, the com- 6. Economic munity must review the total list of service op- 1. Income tions discussed previously, in order to deter- a. Average disposable per capita mine those which it might demand. The income different categories of services for which a de- b. Family income mand assessment will be needed are: c. Distribution 2. Employment A. Transportation a. Primary 1. People b. Service a. Business c. Manufacturing b. Personal 3. Assessed valuation 2. Cargo (mail) C. Social B. Industrial Aid 1. Educational level 1. Primary 2. Number of pilots and other person- 2. Service nel 3. Manufacturing 3. Availability of emergency service D. Environmental ber of such households (which is easily obtain- 1. Isolation index able from 1970 Census information) a i ~ d the 2. Communitv of interest index number of based aircraft for communities in Virginia. Each point in Fiqure 3-4 represents a It then becomes possible '- develop regression community with an airport. ("Community" in- models which give the nunder of expected pas- cludes counties and independent cities.) The senger trips, tons of cargo, number of recre- data show a positive relationship between the ational and instructional operations, or the number of families with income in excess of number of based aircraft as functions of such $1 5,000 and the number of based general avia-

variables as comlnunity population, average

tion aircraft.

disposable per capita income, percent In addition, the user costs of aircraft are employed in certain types of industries, and also related positively to the number of families level of educational attainment. It also becomes with incomes over $15,000, as shown in the possi ble to estimate the number of instrument scatter diagram, Figure 3-5, also for Virginia.

lacding, maintenance needs, aircraft opera- User costs cover the total annual costs of tions, and fuel sales, on the basis of the esti- aircraft ownership in the community, and are mates of demand obtained above.

reflectwe of the maintenance, repair, and For exa~nple, Table Ill-II provides a way to operating costs of these vehicles. These costs obtain an approximate number r?f based aircraft are also indicative of the volume of business from the average household income and the and the direct economic impact that general slze of the population. The table gives a Based aviation can have on communities with different Aircraft Factor according to the Average In- income distribution characteristics. The trends come of the community. To obtain the expected demonstrated in Figures 3-4 and 3-5 have an number of based aircraft, the Based Aircraft upper limit, whlch is probably due to the Factor must be multiplied by the Con~inunity capacity limitation of the general aviation air- Size Factor which is the pop'crlation of the com- ports.

munity divided by 10,000 and raised to the 0.71 Virginia, however, is no more typical of the power: nation than many other states. The fifty states Expected Based Aircraft = were tabulated according to population, area, per caplta income, and degree of urbanization.

Based Aircraft Factor ( * ) 0 7 ' ulatiOn To measure probable economic impact, a unit known as the Equivalent Single-Engine Airplane Thls equation will provide a rough estimate for (ESEA) was used. Tv~o-engined piston, tur- any community. It is however least accurate for boprop, and turbojet aircraft were assigned communities of less than 15.000 people ESEA weights according to their relative capital Another way of estimating the number of cost. operating costs. hours of operation. and based aircraft uses the number of households fuel consumption (Table Ill-Ill). By using these in the community whlch have an annual Income equivalents, a more accurate estimate of the exceeding $15,000. Figure 3-4 is a scatter econom;~ impact of alrcraft on an area can be diagram of the relationship between the num- obtained. The annual cost (taken as the varia-

TABLE Ill-II

THE BASED AIRCRAFT FACTOR

Average Annual Household Income (S) Based Aircraft Factor Source: Based on equation obtained from Virginia Air Transportation System Study, Final Draft, June 1975.

tween population centers. This places a pre- ble cost plus 20 percent of the capital costs) of one ESEA is approximately $5,300 (in 1971). Ta- mium on rapid transportation over long dis- ble Ill-IV shows the relevant figures for the fifty tances. Thus, in general the demand for ?*!is- states, grouped by region. None of the varia- tion services increases from east to west.

bles reflect the degree of aviation activity with Second, regions seem to be statistically any degree of consistency. Rather, it appears similar. For instance, the Eastern states are that the degree of activity as reflected econom- similar to each other but different from the ically is a complex function of a large number of states in the Great Lakes region. The Great variables. However, several trends do emerge. Lakes states are, however, similar to each other.

First, aviation activity rises as population Third, aberrant cases can be spotte,:c on a and population density decrease. However, regional basis. For instance, in the rel~ttively ~ p u l a t i o n densities are found in less ur- low activity rate associated with the Eastern banized states which have larger distances be-

BASED AIRCRAFT VS. NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS

WITH INCOME OVER $15,0OO/VEAR FOR VIRGINIA AIRPORTS

FIGURE 3 4

TABLE 111-111

EQUIVALENT SING LE-ENG lWE AIRPLANE WEIGHTS

Type ol Aircraft ESEA Weights Single engine piston Multi-engine piston Turboprop Turbojet .

100 500 1OOO 5,000 lqOOO 54000 1 m

Households earniiig 15,000 or more annually

USER COSTS VS. NUMBER OF HOUSEHaLDS WITH INCOME GREATER THAN

$1 5,000NEAR

FOR VIRGINIA AIRPORTS

FIGURE 3-5

TABLE III-IV

AVIATION ACTIVITY VARIABLES

Popuktion Per C8pila k\carw

F M - State (d-'J)

P.laska Alaska 0.3 3.725 Central Iowa 2 83 2.884 2.929 Kansas 2.95 M~ssour~ 4 69 2.952 2,797 Nebraska 1 49 Delatvare 0 55 3,265 Eastern 3,512 Maryland 3.94 3,674 New Jersey 7 19 New York 18 3 3.608 Pennsvlvania 11 8 3,066 Vtrg~n~a 4 66 2.996 W. Virginia 1 75 2.333 3.493 Great Lak,zs lllino~s 11 1 3.070 Ind:ana 5 2 Mich~gan 8.89 3,357 3.038 M~ncesota 3 82 3,199 Ohlo 10 7 3.032 W ~ x o n s ~ n 4 43 New Er~gland Connectrcut 3.885 2.548 Matne Massachusetts 3.408 2.985 New Hampshire Rhode Island 3.121 2.772 Vermo~ ~t Northwest Idaho 2.644 3.148 Oregon Wash~ngton 3.357 TABLE Ill-IV (Continued) Popubt;on Area pop. Per Capata FAA uegio~ Slate (mil-) income ESEA (1,000 8q. mi.) Denmiry AK: Paclflc Hawall 0.77 Rocky Mountam Colorado 2 22 Montana 0.70 N.Dakota 0.62 S.Dakota 0 67 Utah 1 07 Wyomlng 0 33 Southern Alabama 3 45 Florlda 6 85 Georgla 4 61 a Kentucky 3 23 rU (D MISSISSIPPI 2 22 00 North Carollna 5 10

. % g South Carollna 2 60

Tennessee 3 94

gi2

Southwest Arkansas 1 95

w & Loulslana 3 6 5

New Mexlco 1.01 Oklahoma 2 57 Texas 11 2 West Arlzona 1 79 Calltornla 20.0 Nevada C 49 Sources: Compiled from General Aviation Manufacturers Associatioil. Statistical Data, 1973; McNally Road Atlas (United States. Canada. Mexico). Rand McNally 8 Co.. 1974; U.S. Fact Book, 95th Annual Edition, Grosset & Dunlap, 1975; U.S. Statistical Abstract, Bureau of the Census, 1975.

region. De:ava- shows a high rate of activity. either action or a subsequent impact analysis This is probably attributable to the fact that and evaluation study. If the plan is to do nothing Delaware's corporation laws encourage many or to implement marginal changes in the corporations to be chartered in that state. system, then it is possible that action could be thereby increasing the degree of business avia- taken without an impact anaiysis. If, on the tion. Again, Nevada shows a relatively high rate other hand, an action or project of some signifi- of activity, probably because of the Las Vegas cance is proposed, the impact of the project air fleet which ferries in people for entertain- must be analyzed and evaluated to determine if ment. Even more variation could be expected revisions to the plan need to be made.

on the local level, where countervailing factors The following sections describe the four will be less likely to average out.

additional factors listed above, as well as the While estimates of local general aviation method of incorporating them in the deve!~p- service demand are necessarily inexact, they ment of a plan.

are needed in order to provide some guidmce to the decision-maker. If the cowmunity is suffi- ciently distant from a large hub. it may provide The ability of a community to finance.

enough traffic tc interest a third-level (com- maintain, and operate general aviation services muter) airline or perhaps only an air-taxi. The depends on its sources of funds, its choice of foregoing tables and figures may help project funds, its choice of service and facility opticns, the number of based aircraft. Local condi:ions and the costs and revenues associated with will indicate the demand for industrial aids or those services and facilities.

special community services.

Sources o f Funds Funds for airport construction are available

THE PLANNING PROCESS

from federal a ~ d state sources as discussed in Once it has been determined that the com- Chapter II. Decision-makers will have to obtain munity has a need for better access to general current infoimation about these sources since the Airport and Airway Development Act ex- aviation services, the planning process has begun. This, however, does not necessarily in- pired in June 1975 and has not yet been dicate a commitment to positive action. The replaced and since state policies may undergo decision that a community has a need for similar revision. Local financial support through general obligation, revenue, and geceral aviation services may have to be special purpose bonds was also discussed in revised in the light of such factors as cost; eco- nomic, social, and envircnmental impacts; or, Chapter II. Other local support is sometimes unexpected projections of use or development.

available in the form of individual and corporate donations. Ohio's county airport system was Planners and decision-makers must bear in mind that (1) there are mzny "needs" which are developed in several instances through dona- not "musts." and thet (2) the conclusion that tions. Sometimes land-owners donated a por- action is unwarranted may in itself be a benefit tion of their land to the community in hopes of increasing the value of the remainder. Mining to the community.

companies donated strip mined acreage which The planning pr0crc.s takes into account was no longer of value to them. Local unions or all the factors which went into the initial deci- corporations contributed labor or the use of sion as well as a host of other factors which construction equipment for the construction of could ,.,elude (1) the economic and fiscal facilities.

capabilities of the community, (2) general avia- tion service options open to it, (3) alternative If the alternative chosen does not lnvolve modes of satisfying community needs, and (4) the construction or improvement of an airport, other sources may have to be investigated. For future developments affecting the general avia- tion system, its environment, and the com- example, if a ro-1 is built or improved to pro- munity. v~de better access to an existing airport, federal or state highway funds may be obtained.

This stage in the decis~or,-making process is illustrated in Figure 3-6. The information on Alternatives the left-hand side of the figure is collected and Communities considering the construction fed into the decision box labeled "~mpacts or 9f an airport should investigate the costs of actions." Thls box represents the process of construction under FAA specifications as op- planning to satisfy whatever needs have been posed to other specif~cations. Building to FAA established In the preliminary analysis. The specifications is often much more expensive plan which is developed can be the basis for since they were written primarily with the heavy 1970 will allow the states more freedom in set- air-carrier aircraft in mind. The State of Ohio ting technical standards.

avoided federal support for its county airport system and urged local communities to con- Bette; access to an existing airport may be sider an airstrip for general aviation to be a secured, according to conditions, by the con- road, 4,000 feet long and 75 feet wide, designed struction or improvement of highways or by the to bear a certain load under certain conditions.

institution of scheduled or demand-activated In the future it may be possibleto secure federal ground transportation such as bus, limousine, funds without conforming to FAA construction or taxi service. A helicopter service may also be requirements. This will depend on whe!ber the feasible for this purpose.

final version of the legislation which replaces Alternatives to the use of air service may the Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 . . , / ' 8 I I , ' 1

- ., &&, , f i L * h . - -

. . - - I . . . - . . . I - .

THE FROHT DOOR TO YOUR

COMMUNITY IS A HIOHWAY

4,000 FEET LON@ AND 75

FEET WIDE

the sale or lease of property for industrial or also be found in alternative modes of transpor- tation and communication as discussed in commercial enterprises which desire access to Chapter II. If, for example, the community's an airport.

main need is better medical service, it may be Most of the revenue derived from the ter- more feasible to hire a qualified nurse and es- minal area comes from the airlines for their tablish a closed circuit television connection ticket counters, waiting rooms, and offices; with an out-of-town doctor than to construct an and, from automobile parking. In addition, airport for the purpose of flying a doctor to many other concessions tend to congregate town, or the patient to the doctor.

about the terminal area. Among those are auto rental. restaurants, various shops, flight in- Costs and Rwenues surance, hotel or motel facilities, and advertis- Alternative fiscal arrangements for airports ing spaces.

are discussed in Chapter II, where it is noted that small general aviation airports usually lose Each of the revenue producing areas also money and require some sort of subsidy. J.A.

has associated costs. IP the airfield area, Neiss stated that as the number of passengers costs include the maintenaace of the runways at an airport decreases, the airport can be ex- (resurfacing,regrooving , rubber removal, snow pected to show less profit; that "generally only removal, etc.), replacement of runway lights, those metropolitan general aviation airports and mowing the grass. Hangar and building with a large commercial/industriaI revenue costs consist of the general upkeep of the base which generate over 160.000 annual buildings (roofs, doors--hangar doors can be aircraft movements earn sufficient revenues to especially troublesome). Facilities that are meet their operating expenses."52 rented to FBOs are usually maintained by the Discussions with FBOs indicate that the FBO. In the termimzl area, costs include those largest. most stable revenue producers at an of security police (particularly if air carriers are airport are line service (fuel, oil, and aircraft rlsing the facility). utilities, gener~l upkeep of halls, corridors, main lobbies, rest rooms, and parking). hangar rental, and office space rental.

other unassigned spaces; concessions at an Operating revenues which an airport can airport are usually expected to provide the expect !o derive can be classified as airfield, upkeep of their own facilities with the exception hangar and buildings, non-aviation functions, of parking surfaces.

terminal. and concessions. Each of these sources of revenue will be discusssd below. In Future Oevelo~ments - .

the airfield area. revenues cac 5s derived from A consideration of future developments 1 s air carrier landing fees. landing fees for other central to any planning effort. These develop- aircraft, fuel and oil sales, airline catering fees.

ments could be local, regional, or national in aircraft parking (overnight and long-term), and nature. They could also be social, economic.

use fees for military reserves and air guards.

political, or technological. It is, of course.

Obviously. the revenues derived are very difficult to see very far or very clearly into the closely associated with the size of the airport.

futirre but some ~roiections must be made and Hangar and building area revenues are considered by locai planners. If, for example, derived from hangar rental. office space rental there were a high probability that a cheap and to commercial and ~ndustrial concerns. rental efficient VTOL or STOL vehicle would be of cargo and freight forwarding areas, rental of developed, future runways requirements for space to governmental agencies-such as the general aviation aircraft might well be very FAA or the National Weather Service-and the short and much less land would have to be ac- rental of facilities (hangars and offices) to quired. Again. if it be likely that general aviation FBOs. Frequently, the airport administration aircraft wiii become much more expensive to does not provide the buildings directly, but own and operate, project~ons of demand for leases the land on a 25- to 30-year basis to an facili!ies and services would have to be revised.

operating organizat~on which will build the On the local level, it may be possible to foresee facilities; the ownership of the facilities will the development of strong anti-airport senti- revert to the administration and will be rented ments among the citizens which would affect back to the operator zit the and of the lease the siting or even the existence of an airport in period.

future plans.

Non-aviation revenues can be derived from The conclusions reached below are of a tentative nature and are indicative only of the 9 2 J A Neiss. Economtcs of Airporf System Plann~ng (W type of concertis which must be addressed York American lnst~tute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. I n C .

1973) regarding the future. Communities considering Among the trends most frequently men- the acquisition of genera; aviation services would be well advised to check the validity of tioned in support of such programs is the de- centralization tendency of some sectors of the what appears below, for unexpected develop- economy. For various reasons, many firms have ments may change the probabilities of impor- located or relocated manufacturing plants away tant factors.

from central cities and even away from the Population Dispersion suburbs. In larger companies, the tendency is There has been considerable discussion of to locate assembly plants in scattered locations the desirability and feasibility of a national while maintaining headquarters in urban cen- policy of population dispersion. If such a policy ters near transportation. communication, and were to be adopted, the allocation of federal financial facilities. This trend is presently small, funds for the establishment of airports in desig- however, involving between 500 and 750 loca- nated regional growth centers or in exurban tions each year and is unlikely to accelerate or areas generally might well be increased.53 Such have much impact without the stimulus of a na- an approach could change the present funding tional policy." Industries which relocate are criteria for airport development, which is based those which can make use of the generally low- cn accommodating existing and projected skilled labor available in non-urban areas.

aircraft ownership in an area, rather than guid- Such industries are typically those in their later ing the location of aviatlon activity.

stages of development because they have A policy of population dispersion has beer!

routinized procedures and automated produc- suggested i n view of the increasing tion. Older industries tend to be slow-growth metropolitan-area problems which are mag- since ample time has passed for the market to nified by the rise in urban population on the na- become relatively saturated. Even if more of tional level Proposed programs include such such industry relocated in the countryside, it options as the encouragement of the location will be unlikely to induce growth at rates equal and relocation of jobs in non-metropolitan to those found in metropolitan areas. In addi- areas to draw people away from the cities and tion. the proportion of industry devoted to suburbs; the provis~on of economic support for manufacturing has been undergoing a steady the non-metropolitan population in order to decline while serv~ce-oriented industry has dra- stem the tide of migration from rural to urban matically increased to 62 percent of the non- areas; the creation of new small and med~um- agr~cultural jobs. Service-oriented firms are sized cities away from heavy concentrations of unlikely to locate away from population cen- population; the revitalization of viable small ters. since it is to their benefit to be very close towns: and the development of underdeveloped to large markets.5s regions. The development of airports might The creation of new towns and com- play a role in many of these proposals in order mun~ties has definitely begun, but. agaln, the to overcome the d~sadvantages of isolation and enterprise IS presently of l~mited size. In 1970.

to make such areas and places more attractive the Department of Housing and Urban Develop- to business.

ment (HUD) comp~led a list of large com- "This concept 1 s discussed In the !ollow~ng Vary T mun~ties and new developments. While the list Coates. Technology AQsessment Group Program of Pollcy Stud~es was not exhaustive. ~t was made as complete as In h e n c e and Technology. the George Washlngton Unlvers~ty possible. HUD located a total of 63 new com- Revrtalrzafron of Small Communrtres Trensportatron Opfross (Washington Department of Transportation. May 1974). Joseph F mun~ties which had been completed or begun Vlnek Jr (ed ) Arr Servrce to Small Communrfres Drrectrons tor the between 1947 and 1969. The total projected Future. Frnel Report of the Workshop on LowlMedrum Densrfy Arr populat~on of these developments amounted to Transpomfron. (Cambr~dge MIT Fl~ght Transportat~on Laboratory.

February. 1974). artlcles by Haren. Hansen. Rosenblatt. Chln~tz, and

less than four mi!lion residents " Other trends

Heady In Larry R Wh~tlng (ed ) Rural lndustrrahzatron Problems wh~ch are relatively small, but may become and Pofentrals. (Ames lowa lowa State Unlvers~ty Press. 1974).

more ~mportant. are the use of small towns as Rlchard J Barber. Repori on Netronal Transportatron PoNcres.

(Washlngton Av~at~on Advlsory Commlss~on September 1971).

places for retirement, due to the lower cost of LOUIS U Mayo. The Program of Policy Studies In Sc~ence and Tech- living and slower piice of life; and the growth of nology of the George Washlngton Univers~ty. Sooel lnpacts of Crvrl Avrahon and ImpNcalron$ for R and D Polrcy. (Washlngton Depart- le~sure activit~es In the form of tourlsm and ment of Transportat~on. 1971 ). Jerome R Plckard. Is Dispersal the recreation.

Answer to Urban Overgrowth." Urban Land. 29 3-12 (January 1970) The importance of these trends could be " N ~ l e s M Hansen "Factors Determ~nlng the Locat~on of 1 0 - modifled by a s~gnif~cant national policy aimed du,trlal A c t ~ ~ t y . " in Whrtrng op crf p 42 at redistributing metropolitah populat~on or at " Ibrd. pp 28 and 35-42 Benjam~c Chin112 ' Publlc Inter- least slow~ng the m~gration to metropolltan vc~ntlon and Gu~dance of Market Forces to Achleve Rec~str~but~on.'

In Whrfrng. Ibrd. p 55 areas, but at present. populat~on dispersion Plckaro, op crt. pp 11-12 does noi seem to be a clearly racognized goal.

In 1970. President Nixon stated it as a goal in The increased costs will be due primarily to his State of the Union address, but as late as the congestion of the airways and the expense 1974 that goal had not been reaffirmed. There of fuel. As was discussed in Chapter I, general are, however, a host of programs to improve the aviation's use of airspace has been increasing quality of rural life, which may imply a national steadily. Safety problems are posed by this in- goal of increasing the relative attractiveness of crease as well as by conflicts which arise b6- 4veen general aviation on the one hand, and rural areas, thereby decreasing the trend toward migration to rural areas and making it military and air carrier aircraft on the other, more possible for people to relocate in the ex- especially near air bases and hubs. The result urban regions. Such programs include the Ap- of these problems has been an increase in the palachian Program and the Rural Development amount of avionics equipment required on Act of 1972.=' aircraft and an increasing sophistication and cost of operation of the airways and air traffic It is not clear, furthermore, whether control systems. At present, general aviation population redistribution should be a national aircraft are excluded from some congested goal. The United States has a relatively areas and airports unless they are equipped homogeneous cultur~metropolitan and non- with certain avionics devices. Increasing do- metropolitan populations have much the same mands for improved safety and the growing idea of the good life. Many of their goals relate traffic at hubs are both likely to increase loca- better to urban living than to rural. At present tion in which planes are required to have more the majority of the population seems to prefer elaborate electronic capabilities. Inexpensive urban life. but it is unclear how important eco- aircraft will become, therefore, less attractive.

nomic factors are-especially the supply of while better equipped and more useful aircraft jobs-in that preference. Various studies offer become more costly.

vastly d~fferent estimates of the number of peo- ple who would like to live in non-metropolitan Aircraft operating expenses will also in- areas if jobs were ail able.^^ crease as the cost of airways system operation Without information about the true desires increases. This cost is presently borne by taxes of the citizenry, one cannot assume that simple on aviation fuel and paesengers. Such taxes redistribution, without regard to the types of may increase in the future and general aviation people likely to be redistributed, is a good may be charged a larger share of the system thing; such a policy might simply accelerate the operating cost.

flight of those who are better-off from the cen- Fuel costs are likely to increase also as all ters of cities leavinc; others behind.

forms of energy become more expensive. While Finally, ~t is not clear that non-coercive there are possibil~ties for the use of liquid hy- policies could, in fact, reverse present migra- drogen as an alternative to fossil fuels, at pre- tion trends sent this technology seems to be applicable In sum, there seems to be a real possibility only to larger aircraft. In addition, there seems of a national policy to redistribute ?opulation.

to be little likelihood of a significant increase in but such a policy has a low probability of being fuel efficiency resulting from changes in design enacted in the near future. Consequently, plan- of smaller general aviation aircraft, although ners should assume perhaps, that the federal some increases are probable.

government will give little support to exurban As general aviation becomes more expeq- ind~strial relocation and no more support than sive the private fller will find it less and less at- is presently available to airport development.

tractive. Therefore general aviation will be Cost of Aircraft Ownership composed of a higher percentage of business There are several reasons to believe that aircraft; air taxi, commuter, and cargo servlces; the cost of aircraft ownership and operation will as well as industrial aid and special community increase significantly in the near future. Such servlces. In addition, many smaller companies increased costs might tend to drive the private which might have used their own aircraft in the owner of smaller craft out of aviation and thus past will find it prohibitively expensive and may change the mix of a~rcraft in general aviation.

turn to commercial air services and to alterna- Th~s may have significan' :onsequences for tive modes of transportation and communica- decision-makers.

tion. Decision-makers should therefore be cautious In estimating the future economic de- mand for general aviation services, especially '' V ~ t t e k . op crl . P 31 when the~r projections are based on the present rn v , n ~ k 1b1.j. pp 31 and 56 Coales. op Clf. PP 8-9.

nansen. op crf . p 31 number of aircraft owners or aivcraft engines owned in the service area. It may be also true The transportation of people and cargo by the certificated air carriers is not a part of that airports of the future will be viable only if general aviation by definition, and will not be they can accommodate the larger types of aircraft used for business and commuter ser- discussed here in detail. The interface between vices. the certificated air carriers and the other three means of transportation will be considered, State and Local Plans however.

Many states are presently developing state airport system plans and some are formulating Determination of whether the certificated intrastate commuter airline plans. Such plans air carrier, the commuter airline, or the air taxi may have important effects on the future of will be the primary option suited for a com- local communities and may indicate the future munity depends largely on the population of the allocation r>f state funds.

area being served and the area's industrial and service mix. Of all the airports served by certifi- Decisions affecting the future of the local cated air-carriers, 25 handle approximately 70 community are made by many people and in many sectors. Decision-makers concerned with percent of the total airline passenger traffic.59 The certificated airlines primarily serve large general aviation would do well to coordinate hubs with a population of one million or more.

their plans with other planning efforts in their An analysis of the commuter ("third level") air community and in neighboring areas, and to carriers shows that they serve both large hubs consider the variety of future options discussed and smaller communities. They provide pas- in this chapter and procedures recommended senger and cargo feeder service from the small in Chapter V of this report.

communit~es or to the large hubs, and fre- Genera! Aviation Service Options quently provide connecting flights.

A community's utilization of general avia- Three hundred and fifty-five (355) towns tion services is derived from its socio-econom- and cities are served by commuter airlines in ic, geographic, an3 functional characteristics.

the United States.60 A preliminary analysis of Zn ocean-front community may require aerial commuter airline servlces reached no firm con- fish spotting; m e which grows or manufactures clusions about factors which would indicate the perishable goods may find its w s ! important potential success rn establishing such a ser- need for general aviation service to be air cargo vice. but states having the best commuter ser- service to remote markets; or, a community with vice are in order, California, Kansas, Texas, strong ties t i a metropolitan area 200 miles Washington. and Hawaii, suggesting that com- away might seek some form of public air muter airlines provide more service In states transportation. Each of these communities will where population centers are spread out.

probably firld that it has needs for services Geographic location and tourist attract~ons other than the primary ones described pre- seem to be s~gnificant factors governiqq the viously. While a s~ngle-purpose aviation facllity number of departures per day for pop~lation might not be justifiable. a multi-purpose facility catesory.

centers of less than 2.500. In that might be more viable. with decreasing marginal Hawaii offers the best commuter and lntractate costs f ~ r improved utilization and community service and is second in the number o! de- service.

partures per day. Nevertheless, the degree of General aviation services can be classified isolat~on of the population centers seems to be into ;hree basic categories: (1) transportatlon, the major determinant of the existence of com- (2) industrral and community service, and (3) muter services.

sports and recreational. These are described Arr taxi operators fill a gap in publ~c air below.

travel by providing demand-activated alr Transportation transportation By necessity, air taxi operations This category covers the movement of p. 1- depend on both the population base, and the ple and goods by commercial service. Passen- economlc character of the community. Service- ger alr transportation can be provided by (1) oriented communities tend to requtre more in- certificated air carriers. (2) commuter airlrnes.

terc~ty and interstate travel and are inclined to (3) air taxi operators, and (4) privately owned support alr transportation services. Many com- business and corporate aircraft.

muter airlines began as alr taxis and have con- tinued to provide both types of service. An alr taxi operation is the least expensive of the " Av~at~on Advisory Cornm~ss~on. The Long Range Needs of Avratron. op crt listed air transportation methods and the Llsled In the Offrcral A~rlrne Gurde of May 1975 eas~est to establish under federal regulat~ons Although air taxi operations are usually con- lated functions performed by aircraft are: sidered to be short-haul air transportation, agricultural seeding, spraying, and dusting; some operate both nationally and interna- livestock management; fish stocking and spot- tionally. Executive Jet Aviation which is based ting; utilities patrol; advertising, photography, in Columbus, Ohio, for example, provides jet air mapping, surveying, and prospecting; con- taxi service from any point in the United States, struction, such as placement of utility poles by to any airport in the world capable of accorn- helicopters; and, carrying television cameras rnodating its Learjets.

for aerial views of sports events.

Business and corporate avlation includes S ~ e c i a l community services aid the trips performed in owned or leased aircraft gensra! community in health, safety, and public which are operated by the business or corpora- welfare. They are functions normally performed tion. This category covers 44 percent of all by local government organizations such as the hours flown by general aviation aircraft6' If the police, fire department, or forest service.

business or corporation establishes a particular Among some of the functions performed by airport as its primary base of operation, the aircraft are: shark patrol, medical emergency local community will derive significant revenue services (air ambulance), disaster patrol (forest from tie-down or hangar fees, fuel and oil costs, fires, floods), wildlife management, firefightlng, and wages paid to mechanics and flight crews. meteorolog~cal observations and law enforce- ment (traffic patrol).

The potential for air-cargo is usually limited to high priority items and perishable Industrial aids and special community ser- goods which could not reach many of their vices may not only bring in revenue after they markets without rapid transportation. "The arrive but also serve as justification for some reasons for the sudden interest in the cargo- public subsidy of the cost of providing the transport capabilities of general aviation is, of necessary facilities.

course, the drastic deterioration of the postal Sport and Recreational Flying services, couplad with the unacceptable in- This category includes those operations creases in rates, and the increasingly frequent which are performed primarily for pleasure, mishandling of air freight, which, unless per- recreation, entertainment, or othsr ncn-com- sonally brought to and picked up from the mercial purposes. The majority of sports and aircraft, may end up for days on some out-of- recreational f:ying IS performee by ind~./iduals the-way loading dock, gathering dust."62 who own airplanes or periodically rent an Goods transported by air include such items as: airplane from an FBO. It accounts for 28 per- (1) high priority machlne parts or cent of all general aviation transportation hours materials which may be needed for flown.63 This type of flying contributes to airport full production capabilities; financial support In the form of tie-down and bank paper delivered to the Federal (2) hangar fees. fuel and oil sales. and perlodlc Reserve Banks in order to obtain maintenance. Other types of aviatlon activities maximum interest benefits; which are considered in thls category Include: Spot? flying. sallplaning, sky-diving. local area (3) perishable cargoes o f f r u i t s , rides. and vegetables, flowers, and tropical fish; Sport aviatlon refers to that segment of general aviation which designs and builds its remains of deceased persons; and, (4) own alrcraft and is usually associated with the (5) mail and newspapers.

Experimental Alrcraft Assoc~atlon (EAA). an in- ternational organization devoted to the pur- Industrial and Community Service poses of sport aviation. Sailplanlng depends Service related functions performed by aircraft can be divided further into industrial aid largely on the type of airport facilitlespri- manly the runway landlng area. An optlmum services and special community services.

landlng area for sailplanes would be relatively Some of the possible industrial aid service re- wide so that the sailplane approach can be ad- justed for ~ t s lack of power. The alrport should '' Av~at~on Advisory Commlss~on. General Avrarron (Wash- not expect to derive tie-down and hangar Av~at~on Advtsory Comm~sslon, January 1 . 1973). p ~ngton. D C revenues sim~lar to those of powered craft slnce C-55 sailplanes are easily disassembled, loaded on *' Paul Garr~son. "Keep on Haul~q'." Arr Progress Maganne.

trailers, and hauled away for storage. The main .luly. 1975 p 35 tie-down or hangar revenue would be derlved *' Av~at~on Advtsory Commlss~on General Avratron. January 1. 197?. p C-56 from the tow-plane. Speclal conslderatlons should be given to try separate airplane and Flying clubs are frequently established in order sai l ~ l a n e traffic patterns whenever possible. to reduce the cost of flying, but a person must fly approximately 100 hours per year in a flying Sky-diving, or parachuting, contributes to club to justify his membership as more eco- the direct support of an airport through tie- nomical than renting an airplane.s5 down or hangar fees paid by airplanes which Closely associated with aircraft rental is are used to carry the parachutists to their flight instruction which requires the services of "jump" altitude. As with sailplaning, one a licensed flight instructor and usually the ren- aircraft can handle several participants and tal of the aircraft in which he is instructing.

therefore is not considered a large potential source of revenue.

Additional revenue-producing services offered at an airport include the sale of parts Air shows usually are offered at airports at and study materials, restaurant services, and the rate of no more than one per year, if at all.

ground transportation rental.

Direct revenues to the airport operator are minimal, but such shows improve the public im- Because the dollar amount derived from age of the airport and contribute to community the services discussed above is dependent support of airport operating costs.

upon the number of customers available in es- tablishing an airport in a community, one Ground senices should expect that a low scale initiation of ser- The direct aviation services described vices will be the most stable. This means that above are usually accompanied by secondary only limited services may be offered or that the services in the form of ground support aircraft personnel providing these services have a operations, including aircraft maintenance, sufficiently broad background allowing them to repair, and fueling, and flight instruction and perform a variety of duties.

aircraft rental. Each FAA certificated aircraft is req:,ired by law to have at least one major in- Alternative Modes spection annually, performed by an FAA Communities contemplating the acquisi- licensed airframe and powerplant mechanic.

tion of general aviation services should give The availability of a licensed mechanic at an serious thought to the modes of travel and com- airport affects the number of airplanes which munication which may be adequate substitutes will be based there permanently. Many aircraft for air services. Some services such as aerial owners will not base their aircraft at an airport photography cannot be obtained in any way lacking maintenance facilities. Conversely, the other than flying; others, such as rapid number of aircraft based at a11 airport vriII be the transportation to a metropolitan area. can.

major determinant of whether or not that a~rport Once the mix of services desired by the com- can support a full-time mechanic.

munity has been determined, consideration Estimates from several FBOs in Virginia in- should be given to possible substitutes for each dicate that costs of these annual inspections service and to the necessity for the non- start at $200 for a small four-place. single- substitutable services. The decision as to engine airplane and range upward depending whether or not another mode is an adequate on the complexity of the aircraft. About 50 such sutstitute is dependent to a great degree on the inspections are required each year in order to characteristics of the local community support the services of a full-time mechanic.

There is no need to repeat the discussion The availability of fuel and oil also con- in Chapter II of rail, bus, truck, automobile, and tributes to the number of aircraft which will be telecommunications. It will be of some interest.

based at an airport, and will definitely affect its however. to review the concepts used to evalu- amount of itinerant traffic.

ate the various modes and to relate those con- In most cases, unless an aircraft is flown at cepts to the local community.

least 240 hours per year it is more economical The first concept is that of availability and to rent an aircraft rather than own one.6' accessibility. Aircraft almost always require Therefore, the rental of aircraft is a vital part of that some mode of ground transportation be an airport operation. Rentals usually start at ap- av~iilable. An airport must have an access road proximately $15 per flight hour for two-place, and a parking lot. Itinerant traffic will often re- trainer-type aircraft and increase from there quire tax1 or limousine service. Without based on the size and complexity of the aircraft.

scheduled service, the accessibility of the air- ways is limited to those having a pilot's license ** Paul Garrtson. T Taylor. V Fagan lnsrde Pnvete Av1et;on (New York H&C Publ~sh~ng Co . lnc . 1974). p 37 or to those who can afford to hire a plane and pilot. Highways are accessible to anyone with a driver's license. But for that very reason they of the planning process. As plans become more may not be accessible to the elderly, the young, concrete, citizens are more likely to respond, the poor, or the handicapped who require some only to discover that their role is simply to ap- form of puolic transportation by air, rail, or plaud or oppose the developed plans but not to highway. contribute to them. Conquently, community leaders must take steps to involve citizens in A second concept of evaluation is the formulation of plans as early as possible in reliability. All forms of transportation are the planning process. If done successfully, generally mechanically reliable. Aircraft, citizens will have an opportunity to articulate however, are much more vulnerable to weather their goals and to incorporate them into the than the other modes. Localities with severe developing plans.

weather conditions may find a corresponding lack of reliability in air service. Under some Such an effort runs contrary to an conditions, however, air service may be more authoritarian leadership style in which a deci- reliable than highway modes. sion is made and then announced to the com- munity. A democratic approach, seeking com- The third concept is adaptability to both munity input before the decision is reached is load and terrain. General aviation is not as well antithetical and seems to be slow, frustrating, adapted to bulk loads as are trucks or boxcars.

and bogged down in endless discussion.

Buses and cars suffer a similar limitation. Ter- rain, except the most rugged, poses little prob- Leadership seeking community involve- lem to aircraft, however. ment enables the community to discover its goals during the process of planning; the "end- Routing flexibility is the fourth concept. Ex- less discussion" becomes a method of incor- cept for r ~ i l (and water) transportation, most porating those goals. If, indeed, the discussion modes can reach most areas.

is endless, one could argue that the proposed Fifth, the cost of using the various modes is public project is not. rnsonant with community also discussed in Chapter II. The importance of goals but stems, instead, from some special in- this factor depends on the socio-economic terest.

characteristics of the citizens of the community, There are several benefits to community in- some of whom could afford to use one mode but volvement. Once a plan is formulated, it is not another. Economics must also be con- unlikely to be bogged down by unanticipated sidered in the light of the importance of time opposition, lawsuits, and action groups, and comfort. Americans tend to consider the because all interests have been consulted. The full-size automobile as a standard of comfort.

cooperation involved in formulating the plan Developing The Plan will promote a sense of community pride and awareness. Furthermore, the goals discovered Introduction through such a process will provide guidelines So far this chapter has discussed the fac- for future planning efforts. One gains thorough- tors involved in deciding whether or not the ness of decision-making by sacrificing speed.

community needs the services of general avia- tion and in formulating a plan to meet any such While the ideal of full citizen participation needs. That a plan is to be forinulated implies in planning may be unrealizable presently, it that a prelimiinary decision has been made by can be approximated by publicizing the plan- the community that it needs the services being ning process, solic~ting comments, and holding planned.

well-announced public hearings before making decisions at crucial points in the planning pro- Such a preliminary decision is little more cess, as well as by conducting surveys to deter- than an educated guess, especially since it is mine local preferences.

based on a subjective estimation of community goals which, typically are difficult to determine In addition to citizen participation, a sec- since they are rarely discussed. They exist ond principle of planning is comprehensive- more in behavior patterns and in basic assump- ness. Satisfying the needs for general aviation tions than in words. A decision-maker is more services should be part of the overall com- likely to discover the goals which certain in- munity development effort.

dividuals or groups advocate for the community Chapter I provides a useful outline of the than those of the community as a whole.

many steps necessary in the planning process.

The difficulty of discovering community The basic sequence in the planning develop- goals is compounded by the lack of citizen ment process will be discussed here. It consists rasponse to less-than-concrete plans and to in- of (1) describing alternative ways of satisfying vitations to become involved in the esrly stages estimated needs, (2) evaluating the alternatives and selecting one, (3) developing a plan to im- munity need satisfaction will serve as the basis plement the selected alternative. (4) measuring for involvins !he c~mmunity in the decision- the physical, economic, social, and political im- making process. 1 he fact that a plan is in pacts of the selected plan on the community, (5) progress should be ,?ublicized and local civic evaluating the impacts which have been pro- service organizations should be notified about jected, and (6) revising the plan on the basis of the tentative plan choice. The plans should be the assessed and evaluated irnpai's. This sec- made easily available and written comments tion will deal with the first three steps in the should be solicited. Finally a public hearing on basic sequence.

the alternatives shculd be announced. After the public hearing, the decis~on-makers will have Alternatives some basis on which to select the most desira- Once the needs have boen identified, plan- ble alternative.

ners should devise a variety of ways. if possi- ble, to satisfy those needs. Alternatives will Development of Preliminary Plan have to be evaluated on the basis of the existing Unless the alternative selected involves resources of the community. Consequently, the building or expanding an airport, it falls outside first step IS h list the estimated needs and the the scope of this report. If a new airport is second is to take an iriventory of those factors chosen, a preliminary p l m milst be developed.

in the community which may contribute to need This plan should be drjveloped by considering satisfaction. various alternatives In the light of the factors mentioned earlier in this chapter. Planning The needs may be satisfied by other means development is covered more thoroughly in than the acquisition of access to general avia- Chapters I, II, IV, and V. Among the factors to tion facilities. Better transportation ot people be considered are the sponsor, funct~on, form, andlor goods may be obtained by the acquisi- funding, and site of the airport. Alternatives tion of bus, truck. or railway service, or simply should be considered for each item.

by improving the local highway system or ac- cess i o interstate routes. Once several alternative plans have been drawn up, community input should be solicited Sometimes, however, in?portant needs can- again In an effort to provide clues to unex- not be met without the acquisition of better ac- pected impacts of thc various alternatives. After cess to a general aviation facility. It is possible this solicitation the plans should be assessed that a nearby community has an airport which and evaluated in terms of their impacts as dis- would be suitable. On3 plan might be to im- cussed in the next section.

prave access to that airport by instituting taxi or limousine servlce or by building or improving an access r3ad to such an airport. If such an IMPACTS airport exists nearby hut does not provide the servlces required, one plan might be to join This section will deal only with the impacts with the neighboring community to improve of airports upon the community. Chapter II their airport, in effect making it a regional air- identified and d~scussed many of the physical port.

impacts of general aviation, including noise level, air a ~ i d water quality, and land use. In this Another alternative IS for the community to section economic, social, and poli -al effects csnstruct or expand its o!'.n a~rport. Then two will be considered. Some ecorimvb ;mpacts of importan! sets of alternatives arise. The airport a proposed airport will havs been included in may be the local community's or it may be es- the plans as a projected demand for ysccral tablished through a regional authority or com- aviation servlces and as en examination of the mission. Again, the airport may be constructed economic and flscal capabil~ties of the com- to FAA specifications or it may be built using munity. As Chapter II ~ndicated, general avia- other standards. (The implications of this alter- tion airports frequently operate i ~ t a loss and the native have been discussed above.)

subsldy they receive is after, justifled on the Each of the various alternatives relevant to basis of hooed-for secqndary impact, such as the local situation (and outlined in the preced- industrial development.

ing portions of this chapter) should each be for- Once probable impacts have been iden- mulated in terms of the needs it satisfies, the tifled. ~t IS necessary to recorsider the questior, costs and revenues, and the community goals ~t of community need At that point the publ~c IS sewes.

most l~kely to become ~ i i o u s ; / Interested In Evaluation and Selection of Alternatives the planning since people tend to react only to Brief descr;ptions of methods for com- projects which are relatively concrete.

central cities.

The Use Of Airports The economic impact G! zirport develop- To Attract Industry ment was suggested in a study by the lndiana It has been argued that airports and Aeronauiiss Commissiori which concluded that general aviation services are a necessity if a lndiana should develop a $1 12.5 million system small city or town is to expand or retain its pre- to handle business aircraft because "any In- sent industrial base. Since many small towns diana community without convenient and ade- believe that industrialization is the answer to quate airport facilities nearby will be at a severe their problems, they may be led to invest their disadvantage in competing nationally for busi- development efforts in aviation facilities rather ness investment and ernpl~yment."~~ than in other areas. The arguments in favor of According to the Aviation Advisory Com- aviation development and the likely conse- mission, airports "act as magnets to attract quences of industrialization should be con- business and industry." The commission also sidered by any town seekina revitalization.

argued that "it has been factually established The problems of small towns which lead that few businesses are willing to build plants them to seek new industry are generally the and other facilities in a community that has no resu It of the trends toward the mechanization of airport."'O The same direct relationship be- agriculture and the urbanization of the popula- tween aviation activity and economic develop- tion. Mechanization increases agricultural pro- ment has been suggested by the FAA which in- ductivity per worker so that fewer !arm workers dicated that (a) the airport is a direct economic are needed. Workers not needed either migrate asset to the community because firms require from rural areas or remain to become aviation services. and that (b) "oocumented unemployed or ~ n d e r e r n p l o y e d . ~ ~ Declining cases" show that the existence of an airport is a population is bad for business. Local busi- controlling factor in the decisions of industries nesses leave, thereby degrading the qual~ty of to vove in or out of a community." The FAA.

rural life and making the c~ties more attractive however, has not presented the "documented for those who remaln. As the population of the cases" that support the suggested critical in- countryside declines, local industries may fluence of an airport In plant locat~on. In addi- leave ~f they depend on local markets6' Com- tlon, the type of ciocumentation that is available munities believe that added industry would at- is frequently questionable from a methodologi- tract nev jopulation, increase the tax base, and cal point of view An example is a 1965 sarvey create more disposable income, all of wh~ch of 500 co~vmunit~es conducted by the Texas would improve the social and economic quality Aeronautics Commlsslon. The commission re- of life.

ported that it asked communities whether or not Proponents of general aviation Prgue that industry and business had located there due to the availability of alr transportation will promote the exls!ence of an airport and found that all of economic growth by (1) attracting new industry, the commun~ties in the 50.000-100.000 popula- (2) help~ng established business and industry tion range responded yes. while only 36.3 per- expand (thereby employ~ng surplus rarm labor).

cent of the commun~tiesin the 2,000-5.000 and (3) retaining present industry.68 This view is population range responded yes One would based on the expanding use of business expect the larger commun~ties to have access aircraft and on the trend of industry to avoid the to an airport and to rat~onallze the airport In -- - terms of the needs of the busmess community.

** Federal A v ~ a t ~ o n Adrnlntstratton. Systems Plannlng Otvt- This IS probably a good example of the b ~ a s in slon Alrports 9 ~ 1 c e The Arrpor+lts Influence on the Co17munrty aviation studies that Jeremy Warford referred to Economy (Washlngtoi 'ederal A v ~ a t ~ o n Admlilstrat~on 1967) p v "Kenneth Holt and Jerry Pran. "Company Oftlc~als and in his study entitled Public Policy Toward Commun,ty Leaders. ' In Larry R Whlt~ng (ed I . North Central General Aviation. Warford argued that it is Reg~onal Center tor Rural Development. Rural lndustrralrzatron usually aircraft-owning businessmen who are Prob:ems and Potentrals (Arne*, Iowa Iowa State Unlverslty Press 1974). pp 120-121 polled on the importance of gan%rll attiation ** Federal Avtat~on Adrnlnlstrat~on Systems Plann~ng DIVI- and they rate its importance highly."

soon. Alrports Sefvlce op crt , p III. LOUIS H Mayo. op of . pp 12.

The r ~ ~ a t ~ o n s h ~ p between i n d u s t r ~ a l development and general av~ation servlces IS *' Nammack op C I ~ . 24 much more complex than the FAA and other ' O Av~at~on Advisory Cornmlss~on General Avra*~on, p CbO stud~es s~ggest In fact, although many studies '' Federal A v ~ a t ~ o n Adrnlnlstrat~on. Eastetn Regton. op, crt .

show that avlatlon fac~lit~es are an Important P 1 '' Narnmack, op crf , p 25 iactor In ~ndustr~al Icyatlon dec~s~ons fsw have '' Warford been able to demonstrate the ~mportance of " lbrd general av~at~on In plant locat~on.'~ However.

workers (spouses), and recreat~onal activities as a stddy by M.I.T. Flight Transportation are available. Taxes are lower and the towns Laboratory points out "unless there are other

factors such as access to materials, an ade- are generally eagei to accommodate new in-

quate labor supply and the proper tax structure, dustry."

air service *!!I not induce new industry to an On the other hand there are many firms area.''7s w h i c h recognize the advantages of Whether or not an airport alone is a suffi- metropolitan areas. There is a rich supply of cient condition to encourage the development knowledge available in local universities, of new industry is certainly open tc~ question. It research institutions, and engineering firms. At seems clear, however, that plant location deci- hand are advertising agencies, sophisticated fi- sions are based on a variety of criteria includ- nancing, utilities, and transportation. In addi- ing: (1) traditional factors such as the existence tion metropolitan areas benefit from the exter- and accessibility of markets, raw materials, nal economiss of agglomeration and from the utilities, transportation, and labor; (2) institu- cultural amenities which can only be supported tional factors such as the type of government by a largc population. Small communities often and tax rates; (3) c@mmuni!y factors such as present problems to industry. They may provide amenities (cultural facilities and natural en- low levels of public service and few oppor- vironmental conditions), attitudes and popula- tunities for contact with customers, supplier:, tion size; (4) personal preferences such as the and other producers. Local labor may not be desires of management and the residence of easily trained due to lower levels of education; the owners; and, (5) site factors such as land management and executive personnel are and buildings.'= unlikely to be available. Also, there 1 s likely to be a lack of mechanical and construction There are a number of reasons why non- workers, of housing, and of other facilitie~.'~ metropolitan areas are attractive to industry.

Employers are not enchanted with big cities It is important to keep in mind that the na- where employees' productivity suffers from the tional economy is becoming more and more frustration of rush hours, and where crime, service oriented. Thus, while one-third to one- noise, pollution, and expenses are increasing.

half of new manufacturing plants open in small The suburbs, which were likely locations for or non-metropolitan communities goods-rel- new or fleeing industry, have become less at- ated employment has dropped from one-half of tractive as the metropolitan area and its blight the non-agricultural total to 26 percent.'' In the swallows them. They suffer from pollution.

past, many industries located near raw haph~zard land use, transportation difficulties, materials, but today only seven percent of the high land costs, and labor shortages. Small labor force is estimated to be near such c~ties are attractive because they are free of resources; consequently, industries tend to many of these disadvantages. In addition, their locate near consumers and capital. It is often labor tends to be non-union, more productive, hard to find capital in rural areas with which to and cheaper than urban labor. The national finance new industries because local banks are highway system has made most small com- more conservative and less growth minded munities accessible. Utilities, land, seasonal than branch ~ a ~ i k s 3nc! fhhy often find commer- cial paper more attractive than local inves.

'* V~nek. op cit. p 40 ment.80 Service industries, are much less likelb Henry L Hunder. Indusfrlal Oevelopmenl (Lexington.

to locate away from large markets than IS Mass D C Heath & Co . 1974). Chapters 5 and 6 manufact~ring.~' " Thls paragraph IS bared on Maurlce Fulton. "Industry's Vlewpolnt of Rural Are=.'' In Whlllng. op crf . pp 69-74, and N ~ k s As a result of the drawbacks wh~ch many M Hanwn. "Factom Determln~ng the Locat~on of lndustrlal Ac- firms see in small commun~ties and of tne

t~v~ty." In Wh~t~ng. op crt . pp 28-29

transformation to a service economy, there are " This paragrnph 18 based on Hansen, op crl . p 29, Fulton.

many more communities seeking industry than op cit, p 74, H A Wadeworth. "Commun~ty Plannlng and Decl- s~on-mak~ng to Anract Industry." In Wh~t~ng. op C I ~ . p 65, and there are firms seeking non-metropolitan loca- Ralph W~dne*. "Reg~onal Coordlnatlon of Communltles wlth In- tions. While communities have spawnec! ap- dustr~ahzsi~on Potent~al." In Whltlnp op crt.. p 131 proximately 14,000 industrial development

I* Fullon, op cil . p 98. Hansen, op cil . p 3

organizations, there are only 500 to 750 new

Hanwn. op cll . pp 28 and 30. Benlam~n Ch~nlu. "Public

plant locations each year.82 If easb organizat~on Interventton m d Gu~dance of Market F o r m to Ach~we Red~str~bu-

tlon." In Wh~tlng. op crt . p 131. and W~dner. op crf , p 129

sought only one new plar,t for its community, at

@' Hanwn, op or1 . p 35

present rates it would take over 26 yeers to sup- * I Earl 0 Heady. "Rural Development and Rural Con,- ply them all.

munltles of the Future " In Wtllttng, op cil . p 138. Hansen. op c ~ f . .

In vlew of the disparity between the number P 42 of firms seeking locations and the number of of those involved in the location decision-mak- co,nrr~~nities wkich believe they would benefit ing It appears, then, that only in by attracting a new manufacturing facility, it is some cases is an airport a primary determinant in decision-making.

i~portant to investigate all tPe factors which contribute to a firm s location ~lecisior?. A com- Robert W. Shively studied 330 responses to munity must have advantages which make i! a : - a survey of Nebraska industrial plants. The tractive to industry before aviation facllities most important factors determining industrlal would become a factor. Because of the variety location decisions included quallty, availability.

of factors involved in location decisions. it is and cost of labor and the existence of a right- difficult to generalize a b u t them; nowever.

to-work law in the state; highway transportation several studies have been conducted which and proximity of markets; reliability of electrical may provide some guidance in this respec!.

service and availability of natural gas; According to a report written for the A p availability of sites; and the fact that the peopla palachian Regional Commission by Manage- who started the plant lived in the area. (See Ta- ment an3 Economic Research Incorporated ble Ill-V.) A consultant indicated that small (MERI). a substantial amount of information has communities attractive to industry had good been generated in recent years concerning the highways with ready access to Interstate airport's influence on plant location deci- rcutes; - strong and intelligent community s i o n ~ . ~ ' The informatior] takes two forms: in- leadership; a lack of domination by a single in- dividual airport case studies and industrial sur- dustry; a good supply of labor; a big city within veys.

50 miles; and unforbidding terrain. Another consultant mentioned trainable labor. good The case study approach generally sup- nlahways, and adequate util~ties.~' Checklists pdns the conclusion that airports are. in !act. an from two sources emphasized public services important community attribute for the attraction and a progressive attitude in additlon to those of industry. Yet, none of these studies measures factors already mentione~l.~' In sum. the major :he relative importance of the airport's attrac- facto~s involved in plant location decisions tiveness quantitat~vely compared to the other seem to be labor. highways. utilities.

community attributes. In addition, many dlsplay availability of sites. community attitude. and a prc -airport bias. For exam^'^ a report pre- proximity to markets.

pared by the FAA entitled The ,irpo+lts In- fluence on the Community Economy cited as its In coctrast to these and other factors. avia- purpose to seek ". . . ta:,gible evidence of sig- tlon services do not seem to be rated especially nificant community benefit which could be important. In the Shively study. air freight causUy related to each airport's aevelop- transportat~on and air passenger transportation ment."" were respectively 3 r d and 36th in importance The MERI regort also cited the industrial among 43 factors. (See Table Ill-V.) According survey as a measure of the c.,rport's Influence in ,a one of the consultar,ts. "a few flrms needed locatron decision-maklng. Despite potential or wanted airport fac~lltiec nearby for fast ship- analytical and covceptual problems. the results ment of raw materials and finished product^."^^ do provide. at I~as,. some indication of the role A survey conducted by the Mlnnes~ta Depart- played by airports In lo cat lo.^ decisions. Air- ment of Aeronautics tends to confirm the s%- ports were listed as important by 20-30 percent ondary importance of aviation In industrlal site -- location. (See iable Ill-VI.) Unless the above "Management and Econom~c qesearch Incorporated mentioned factors and others are present. it is Gurdelrnes lor an Appalachran Arrport System Appalachl~n Research Report No 3 (Palo Alto 1967) pp 40-48 unl1ke:y that aviation facilities will ald In '' Federa' Av~at~on Admln~stratlon Systems Plannlng DIVI- w3oing industry. If all of these factors ?nd ston. AIW? Serv~ce op crt . a 11 others are present, it is unlikely that lack of " Managemert and Econom~c Resedrch lncorpcraled op ger 2' 31 av~atlon servlces would deter an in- C I ~ . pp 4247 torestsd company.

Fulton. ap o f . pp 77-78 Molt and Pran op crt . pp 121-122 The Ohio County A~rport System is often " Plant Locatron 1974 (New York S~rnmons-Boardman credlted with aldlng in the development of the Publlsnlng Co 1973 p 7 G A Hornberger "Corporate and Com- state.e9 ilnder the plan low-cost, paved. single- In Whll~ng. op LII munlly @cls~on Maktng lor Locallng Industry 85-88 runway airports were built In almast every @ ' Holt and Pratt cp c.! . pp 121-122 county. Yet i t is dlfflcult to credlt the subse- " Farnsworlh op crl . p J. Cla~r Srebb~ns 'Oh10 s A~rport quent industrial~zat~on to the alrports or even to Bulldlng Program The AOPA Prlot. December 1974. pp 38-39 Lar- estimate the degree to whic3 they were neces- The AOPA ry Trask "Oh10 Shcws FAA HOW lo Bu~ld k~rporls.

sary, since the state as a whole has many fac- 'rlot. November 1970. p d TABLE Ill-V RANKING OF LOCATION FACTORS IN NEBRASKA, ALL INDUSTRIES Rank Factor Points Rank Points L >or quall?! 645 23 Groundwater supply 420 Highway transportation 640 24 Amount of unionization 41 7 Labor availabil~ty 637 25 Proximity to raw materials 416 Available slte 604 26 Construction costs 40 1 Reliability of electr~c service 585 27 Housing for plant workers 385 Wage rates 582 28 Housing for executives 372 Proximity to market 562 29 Cal~ber of local ID yroup 347 People who started plant lived here 537 30 Local financial institutions 327 Natural gas availab~l~ty 529 31 -32 Recreational opportunltles 298 Right-to-work law 520 31-32 Vocational training programs 298 Taxes 519 33 Air freight transportat~on 293 Electrlc rates 514 34 Nearness to colleges and universities 288 51 1 Rail transportation 35 Hotel, motel, and meeting facilities 271 Community attitadz toward industry 505 36 Air passenger transportaticn 267 Fr~endliness of people 490 Natural gas rates 480 Attra~t~viness or community 474 Local investors Clty water at site 473 LDC financing Health facil~ties and services 465 Local subsidies City sewer at slte 465 SBA f~nnncing Industrial revenue bonds Ava~lable building 435 Gual~ty of local schools 428 Recummendation of consultant Note A factor was awzrded one, two, or three polrits each time it was rated of minor importance, important, or very irnpor- tant, respectively. Source: Robert W. Shlvely, "Decis~on Making for Locatlng Industry," in Larry R. Whiting. Rural ln- dustrialization: Problems and Potentials, Ames, lowa: lowa State LJniversity Press, 1974.

PIANKING OF LOCATION FACTORS IN MlNNESOTA According to 35 communities of According ' 0 25 Industries whlch According to 24 communities of have built or expanded a plant In 1.000 to 10,000 without 9aved arld 1.000 to 50.000 with paved and Minnesota In the last five years.

lighted airports. Ilg; aed airports.

1 Labor Supply 1. Labor Supply 1. -abor Supply 2. Community 2. Community 2. Community 3. Market and 3. Sites and lmprovements 3. Sites and 'mprovements Highway Accessibility 4. Rail Accessibility 4. Highway Accessibility 5. Taxes 5. Market 5. Taxes 6. Rail Accessibility 6. Materials 6. Taxes 7 Rail Accessibility 7. Power and Fuel 7. k n a l Accessibility 8. Power and Fuel 8. Aerial Accessiblllty 8 Power and Fuel 9. Market 9. Sites and Improvements 9. H~ghway Accessibility 10. Materials 10. Aerial Accessibility 10. Materials 11. Special Facilities 11. Water Access; billty 11. Speciii! Facilities 12. Water Accessibility 12. Sp.scial F3cilities 12. Water Accessibility Source: Minnesota Department of Aeronautlcs, A Study of the Socio-Economic Impact of Aviation on Selected Communities. 1 January 1975.

tors which are attractive from a bur ~ness point active and progressive leadership. What then of view. If, as one consultant suggtated, a !oca- are the impacts of industrialization likely to be?

The answer to thls ques!ion depends on the ticn decision is begun with a delimitation of an nature of the community and on the new indus- appropriate region relative to markets. Ohio is geographically favored.g0 In addition, Ohio has try, but there are certain factors which can give a general indication of the probable effects.

a strong highway system. a favorable tax cli- mate. plentiful labor, and good factory sitesg' First, the favorable economic impacts of The same governor who promoted the airport the new flrm may be less than antic~pated.

system also initiated an extensive system of Communities often seek industry In order to regional vocational education centers. The bring in more money a;ld improve business state was heavily industrializzd (except In the wlth the payroll of the new firm. Thus, each dol- southeastern section) before the airport system lar of payroll will generate income for others as began. Many communities are wlthin fifty miles it is spent. If the new Industry IS to be a slgnifl- of the state's large cities (Cleveland. Colum- cant economlc benefit thls mult~pl~cative effect bus, Cincinnati. Akron. Toledo, Dayton.) Whlle should be large. Unfortunately. the smaller the the airport program made the state more attrac- community, the smaller the multlpller, because tive to some i n d u s t r i e ~ , ~ ~ it is not clear that the the money flows out of a small community faster lack of the airport system would have prevented than out of a larger one. So while the multiplier substantial development. It can be argued, for investment dollars is taken to be about however, that while the airport system had little seven on a nat~onal level. the mult~pller shrlnks influence on the degree of industrialization in to three or four at the state level. The local com- Ohio, it may well have determined the distribu- munlty. ~f small, can count on very llttle from tion of new industry; that is. new plants may this ~ ! . ~ l t ~ p l ~ c a t ~ o n . ~ ~ have been constructed in smaller communities The loss of payroll mult~pl~cation IS due to rather than on the frincss of the larger clties.

;he "leakags" of money oui of the community Assume that a community has an alrp~rt.

or the fallure 3f the payroll to represent new many other factors attractive to industry. and an mone!. A majcr cause of leakage is the portion of the work rorce composed of non-resident .D Hornberger op. crt . pp 85-88 commuters who take their paychecks out of the *' Stebblns. op crt . p 39 community In which the firm 1 s located and '' Trask. op crt . p 29 spend it elsewhere. In the case of one steel *'John T Scott. Jr and Gene F Summers. Problems e n plant, 83 percent of the work force resides in Rural Commun~l~es after Industry Arrlves. In W h ~ t ~ n g . op crl. P countles other than that i r ~ which the plant is lo-

96. Wadsworth. op crt . p 63

it is unlikely to have an effect on the size of the cated. Again, the local residents who commute local p~pulation since there is generally a good to jobs 9uts1de the community, may quit their supply of female labor among the wives and old jobs to take new ones at the new local plant.

Except for the increase in their wages, their daughters already residing In the area. Whlle take-home pay represents no new money com- the1 will be paid low wages. their income will all go to local families already in existence; ing into the community, since they were already bringing it in from the jobs to whlch they pre- average family income will increase. as will viously c g m r n ~ t e d . ~ Similar considerations a p con sump ti or^. It is llkely that more cars and ply to those on welfare or unemployment-that more expenslve cars will be purchased by such famllles. Families with working wives will portion of the payroll which really r, -esents purchase more convenience foods, household new money may not be spent locally unless an adequate economlc Infrastructure has services (e.g.. laundry), and women's clothing.

developed. locals may travel to larger towns or They are likely to eat out more often and at bet- use mall-order catalogs to shop because of the ter restaurants, and upgrade their houses and furniture; however, they will be unlikely to build expense and lack of variety of goods locally.

Money saved ~n ' ~ c a l banks may also represent many new houses.

leakage since commercial paper may be more If, on the other hand. a factory hires men attractive than local ~nvestment.~~ primarlly. Scott and Summers argued the con- Consequently. communities should not ac- sequences will be vastly a.;:.?rent. Population cept new plant locations without evaluating the will increase as workers move closer to their prospective industrys The most importznt jobs and bring families with them. Aggregate questions In this regard are the kind and source communlty Income will increase but not per of labor. Will the plant require labo: of e sort capita income to any great extent. The new available locally or will a large number of the fam~l~es will require housing. furniture. and workers commute? One plant located :n Ap- low-cost automobiles. Low cost food sales will palachla employed 3.000 workers who com- increase, but not restaurant business; however.

muted to the plant from 27 counties in two inere will probably be more activity at taverns, states9' Some companles prefer their workers bowling alleys. and other places of entertain- to live out of town in order to reduce local ment The larger population will increase the public servlce needs and consequent taxes on number of students who require public schools the f~rrn.*~ Will the new industry employ workers snd put a larger demand on publlc services in who are now unemployed or underemployed. or general. In addlt~on there will be an increase in will it simply increase competltlon for those the number of young heads of households.

already employed? If so. ~t IS unllkely to employ If Scott and Summers are right. there displaced farm workers Even companles wh~ch seems to be a trade-off between growth and in- hire locally rnay not Increase employment zs creased standard of I~vlng. If a commun~ty ac- much as expected since they may hire thrj bet- quires industry whlch employs men. it mlght ter workers who are then replaced by thcse wka grow and be l~kely to perslst in the future since had been employed or underemployed at the number of young fam~lles will Increase. Per marg~nal, unnecessary. or redundant jobs cap~ta Income will be low, however If the In- whlch cannot subsequently be filled econom- dustry employs women, family income will in- ~cally.*~ crease. but the population will not.

A second major ccnslderatlon is whether Impacts on the communlty result not only the company will h ~ r e women or men primarlly.

from employment after the plant is built, but Scott and Summers polnted out that the sex of also from the workers who construct ~ t . It will the workers has important local economic con- make a major d~fference whether local or im- s e q u e n c e ~ . ' ~ ~ If a plant hires women primarily.

ported construction labor IS used. If construc- tlon labor is brought Into town for a relatively Scott and Summers op or. p 96 cf Wadsworth op crt . short building project, there will be a short-run ? 63 demand for sleeping quarters for inexpensive *' W~dner op crt . pp 129-130 Scon and Summers. op crl .

eating places. along with the generation of ad- p 96. Hansen. op crr . p 30 ditional busmess at places of entertainment * Wadsworth. op crt . p 62 However, local businesses will not be able to ' Wldner op crl p 131 expand to meet the demand comfortably slnce " Scott and Summers op crt pp 104-105 I! will exist for only a relatively short time. If the ** Wadsworth op crt . p 6 4 Hansen op crt . pp 4042 buliding project IS long-term, workers will brlng '" "IS paragrwh and the next are based on Scott and Sum- In their faml' vho will put a strain on the mers. op. crt.. pp 102-105 school system and on other municipal services. munity vary considerably because of low eco- One town expanded its schools and services nomic multipliers, payroll leakage, the source because it expected the new industry to pro- and kind of labor, the method and duration of mote new growth. When the town failed to construction. new demands of community ser- grow, the citizens enjoyed more senices as vices, social problems, changes in the polltical well as a higher tax bill.'o1 structure, and ecological considerations.

New industry can have many other effects The second assumption is questionable because of the relatively small market for the on the local community. The potential stress on local public services has been mentioned in many communities seeking industry and the passing. Paying for increased services cen be a factors which are far more important than air financial strain on a small community, service in the location of new plants.

especially if the new industry has been offered Social And Political Impacts tax incentives to locate in that area. This form of inducement should be avoided since "tax Most of the social impacts of an airport on policies are seldom a decisive irifluence in a community art dependent upon the economic selecting a branch location" except i n variables. Economics lead to political conse- metropolitan areas.lo2 Again, ecological prob- quences as well. If a town builds an airport with lems may result from new plants. While pollu- hopes of industrial development the reputation ticrl is not a frequent consequence, it should be of the responsible community leaders may rise evaluated in each case. More important is the or fall as industry arrives or fails to appear In increased water runoff created by the added addition. the cost of constructing an unwar- roof and parking lot area. Runoff can tax the ranted airport will either result in higher taxes sewer or storm system, cause erosion, and or lower levels of local services.

flood basements.lo3 If the airport does help to bring in industry, There are social and political conse- the community may find that its life style has quences to be considered as well. If the new in- changed. for example, from serii-rural to semi- dustry will attract new population, what are the industrial lite. Since new industries could be likely characterist~~:~ of that population? How expected to draw employees from the surround- big will it be relative to the present community? ing cour~tryside, the new l ~ f e style would involve How will it be integrai9d into the life of the com- daily commuting. which in turn may lead to r i s h munity?lo4 The plant may become afactor in the hours. traffic jams, new road construction. and local power structure. The town may be put in a an increased pol~ce force to handle the trafflc subservient position if the plant employs a large This will result in some increased stress. as will portion of the ~ o p u l a t i o n . ' ~ ~ On the other hand. the change from a farm life to an industrial dis- new industry can help provide leadership and cipline.

brainpower for the community and help it to Should significan! growth take place the progress in the future.'" In many cases physi- locality would be called upon to prov~de the cal and social Improvements follow the estab- higher level of government service typical of a lishment of a branch plant.lO' small c~ty. It IS likely that local taxes, after an in- Conclusion itial decrease in rate to take into account the Commun~ties may make two assumptions added base due to new industry. would once in their plans for development. These assump- agaln begln to cl~mb.

t~ons are both quest~onable. The f~rst is that the Social and economic impacts will of acquisition of new Industry will be of benefit to course bary depend~ng on the nature of the the community. The second is that all alrport community involved. In a large metropolltan will be a major a ~ d in attracting new fndustry.

area, the effects of addlng a small general avia- The first assumpt~on 1 s quest~onable tion a~rport would be mlnimal com2ared to the because the effects of a new plant on a som- area's entire economv and soc~tlty If the general aviat~on alrport IS really a new '" T h ~ s paragraph IS based on Scan and Summers op c f t .

metropol~ian airport suitable for alr carrler ser- pp 101-102 vice. the effects would be larger and are rather " Holt and Pran op cff p 121 well studied In an Isdated urban area. there '.' Host and Pratt, op crf . p 125. Scott and Summers op may be a large eccnomlc effect and a smaller CI1. p 100 social impact since the lrfe style ,s already In- ' " Scott and Summers op crt . pp 102 and 107 dustrlal and urban '" Fulton, op o r . p 74 Wadsworth op crf . p 65 " Wadsworth op crf . v 65 There are also some consequences whlch '-. Holt and Pratt op clt . p 125 seem to be reiatlvely Independent of the eco- rlomlc variables. They are hard to measure and community has developed a new awareness of f?ll primarily into a category which one could the issues involved in providing general avia- call community solidarity or community interac- tion services. !t is likely that groups within the tion. Despite the difficulties of measurement. community have become interested in the these factors can be extremely important in the issue, and that anti-, pro-, and neutral-airport quality of life of the community.

sentiments have developed. It is reasonable to assume that ?here could be a significant In order to build an airport under the Ohio difference between the estimate of community plan, a community had to seek it actively by needs made at the time of the initial decision to developing plans and raising money. It initiate the planning process, and that which therefore became more organized than it had could be made now in the light of concrete been in order to acquire the airport. Leaders facts, plans, and additional community inputs.

had to promote, persuade. and generate com- Decision-makers must take advantage of this munlty c o n c e n s ~ s . ~ ~ ~ In effect the communlty opportunity to re-evaluate their original find- united around a project and the project became ings. Consider, for example, the case where the a symbol of the community. While the airport plans cal! for the construction or expansion of may not put the community on the map in the an airport. The airport is now more than a eyes of the rest of the world, it makes the com- dream: ~t is an actual plan with estimated munity feel that it is on the map: the airport benefits and costs and projected physical.

becomes a source of civic pride and identifica- so~.al, political, and economic impacts. It has tion.

attracted the attention of numerous individuals The airpcrt In Vinton County, Ohio.

in the community. One of three possible paths became a more lasting example of thls theme.

might now be pursued: the plan may be drop- Vinton's alrport became its community center. a ped, revised, or Implemented as is.

place where art exhlbits and other cultural and recreat~onal evects take place.lo9 Aga~n the air- The same methods described earlier in this port serves as cr way of bringing people chapter may be used to stimulate the incorpora- together and making them proud of their com- tion of c~tizen inputs into the decision-makrng munity.

processpubl~cizing the plans, soliciting com- ments, and holding public meetings.

These characteristics of the local airport do not follow automat~cally from its mere crea- Impacts are not necessarily exclusively tion; they are highly dependent on the planning good or bad. Even among those undesirable process, becomlng possible with full citizen impacts, some will be worse than others. How participation. Positive benefits also depend on important is ~t to the community. for example, comprehensive planning and land use. 'JVith that the alrport IS likely to increase the noise proper planning and implementation an eco- level In certain areas by a given amount? In the nomically-warranted airport can become some- case of social and economic impacts, evalua- thing of dlrect value to many cltlzens. slnce tlon is even more difficult. If ~t seems likely that others besides businessmen and pilots will be an alrport will attract industry and increase the users of the facility. Such direct benefits are size of the conmunity. then the communlty more easily perceived than those indirect must decide on the desirability of such an Im- benefits whlch flow from the addit~onal industry pact. What value does the community place on an alrport may generate.

the pride that may go with having an airport?

It IS important to polnt out. however, that The community will have to determine the such benefits as these may be derived from posslble degree of relationship between things other than a ~ r p o r t s t h e ccmmunlty general aviation and each gf a var~ety of fac- could unite around buildlng a community tors. It mu? r also evaluate the relative impor- center, a water supply system, or a recreational tance of tht3e factors In the !ight of community area. If other circumstances do not warrant an goals. The evaluation of the ove~all benefit or dlsbeneflt of the impact of a general avlation airport. the above mentioned social benefits airport on the community is a cornplex matter.

alone do not justify it either.

Several evaluative techniques are available, but Re-Evaluation none of them is completely satisfactory.

Once the various plans have been studied One approach is to develop "before-and- and their probable ~mpacts determ~ned, the after" scenarios describing the community with and without the facility, in terms of such factors 'O' Farnsworth. op o r . p 24 as expanded industry, population growth. tax ' O * Stebb~ns. op o r . p 42 values, and the like. These scenarios could then be evaluated subjectively by the com- dance with the degree to which i: satisfies munity, in the light of its goals and objectives given community goals. Tradeoffs between the This method assumes the genera; aviation levels of satisfaction of different competing.

facility to be the only influencing variable in and sometimes nontradictory, community goals social and economic development and tends to must be considered by the planners, decision- neglect other equally impc r! factors In rhe mzkers, arld the community at large. The deci- community's development s ~ ~ ~ r t . It also tends sion is basically one in which the community to neglect those real values within the socio- has to make a choice between alternative op- cultural framework of the community hizh are tions leading to different ic'xitifiable futures, neither economic nor quantifiable. Ano:?er given t'ie costs associated with these options.

method is that of "cost-benefit analysis," which Such anaiyses and decisions are usually made weighs economic and social benefits against in the political arena, in accordance with the economic and social costs. The analysis is con- processes of social choice prevailing in the ducted after dollar values are assigned to all community.

non-monetary costs and benefits. The artificial quantification of such fectors as the value of The re-evaluation of community needs and human life and the quality of the environment, goals might show that the facility is not war- however, can lead to questionable, or at the ranted after all. !t may, on the other hand. ac- least controversial, conclusio~s.

centuate the need for the facility. The re- A reasonable approach to impact evalua- evaluation can form the basis for a determina- tion therefore. seems to be one in which both tion of the types of desirable impacts to be en- monetary and non-monetary factors can be couraged. As revised and amended plans are analyzed withln a framework that maintalrls a developed, impacts must be re-assessed In viable separation between the two. yet overs in- order to make certain !hat no new negative im- sight into the interaction between them. Such a pacts are introduced, and that the replanned framework is that cf "cost-effectiveness." in facility has both mitigated the negative and whlch the direct and indirect non-monetary augmented the positive expected impacts. The costs or benefits of a given course of action are iterative process of glanni ng, assessi,ig im- evaluated relatl~e to the monetary costs. Each pacts, and re-evaluatingshould contlnue until a alternative plan could thus be ranked in accor- satisfactory plan IS obtained

TRANSPORTATION AND

GENERAL AVIATION

IN VIRGINIA

a manufacturing city; (7) Petersburg-Colonial

CHAPTER IV

Heights-Hopehell (with 127,000 people), a manufacturing area with some federal activity; and, (8) Bristol, another manufacturing ceilter.

The remairling 34 percent of the state's popula- tion is in small urban and rural areas. Politi-

IN VIRGINIA

cally, the state is divided into 95 counties, 38 in- dependent cities, and 192 incorporated towns.

INTRODUCTION The independent cities are politically indepen- Virginia, the site of the first permanent dent of the counties in which they exist; incor- English settlement in America in 1607, and one porated towns are not.

of the original 13 colonies, has occupied an im- Important elements in the economy of the portant position in the history of the United state are manufacturing, federal governmerlt States.' Richmond, its capital, was the capital employment, commerce, agriculture, tourism, of the Confederacy and Virginia and the site of Zsheries, and natural resources. Manufactur- many important battles in the Civil War.

ing, employing one-fifth of the state's civilian Because of its central location along the Atlan- labor force, i s highly diversified and tic Coast and its excellent harbor at Hampton geographically well dispersed. Principal indus- Roads, Virginia is an important government, tries are textiles, apparel, chemicals, food pro- Dort, and shipbuilding center.

cessing, trans~ortation equipment, and electri- Geographically, the Commonwealth may cal equipment. Principal manufacturing centers be divided into four regions: (1) The Coastal are in Richmond, Nevrport News, Norfolk, Plain is divided into peninsulas by the action of Lynchburg, Danvi lle, Martinsvi lle, and the James, york, Rappahannock, and Potomac Roanoke.

Riversall navigable from the Chesapeake Bay to the fall line extending roughly from Rich- Federal government employment is con- mond to Washington. (2) Here, the Piedmont zentrated in both Northern Virginia and the Plateau begins, a region of rolling hills divided Hampton Roads area. In addition, many North- into farms and woodlands, sloping gradually to ern Virginia residents work for the federal the Blue Ridge, which divides it from (3) the government in Washington, D.C. Commerce is Great Valley of Virginia. (4) The very south- important because Virginia's location in the western part of the state is in the Appalachian middle of the Atlantic Seaboard causes a great Plateau region, an area of steep mountains and deal of north-southshipping to pass through. In hollows.

addition, it is the site of Hainpton Roads, one of the world's best deepwater ports. Because of its In 1974, the population of Virginia ranked prox~mity to the West Virginia coal fields, it has thirteenth in the nation, with an estimated two coal-hauling railroads. Agriculture is im- 4,908,000 persons or 2.3 per cent of the United portant to South Central Virginia and in the States total. Population increased 17.2 percent Shenandoah Valley.

in the decade of the 19601s, and since 1970 it has increased an additional 5.6 percent. In Tourism is important to much of the state 1970, 63 percent of the population was urban.

with many water recreation opportunities on the The densest portions occur in Virginia's eight coast; important Colonial, Revolutionary War, Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas and Civil War sites in the east; and, many hik- (SMSAs), which account for 66 percent of the ing and camping possibilities in the west. The population. In order of size these are: (1) and (2) Chesapeake Bay provides tourists, as well as Norfolk and Newport News-Hampton, the two the state's commercial fisheries, with some of SMSAs located in t'le Hampton Roads area the best fishing in the country.

(with 1,073,000 1 -ror,~t); (3) Northern Virginia Natural resources are important in the (with 986,000 c ~ ~ ; r l e ) , containing many federal Western part of the state. Coal min~ng, Impor- govercment and military ~nstallations; (4) Rich- tant in the Appalachian region, has undergone mond (with 556.000 people), a manufacturing.

a resurgence with the rising price of imported commerce, and headquarters city; (5) Roanoke oil. Extensive forests cover the western moun- (with 212,000 people), the manufacturing,trade, tains supporting the lumber industry.

and transportation center for the western part of

the state; (6) Lynchburg (with 140,000 people), In this chapter the diversity of Virginla will ' The ~nformat~on In the ~ntroduct~on to Chaoter IV IS be examined with respect to its transportatton atmracted from Ware. Peggy (ed ) Virginla Facts and'Figure4 facilit~es and services, the Virginia Air 1975 Olvls~on of lndustr~al Develo3menl. Commonwealth of Transportation System Plan, regionalism, and Vlrgln~a. R~chmond. V ~ r g l n ~ a

P R E C ~ J N G PAGE BLANK NOT F I L M m

selected case stud~es of indiv~dual aviation Winchester; U.S. 522 from Winchester to the facilities within the Commonwealtl;. State Line; U.S. 33 from Ruckersville to Mor- risonburg; and, U.S. 211 from Warrenton to New Market2 TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES AND SERVICES Intercity Bus Figure 4-2 shows the intercity bus routes in In the followiny sections, the Virginia high- Virginia, operated primarily by Greyhound and way network and the statewide intercity bus, Trallways. Some small amount of service is also rail, and air carrier services w ~ i l he described. A provided by other bus lines: D&M Bus Com- description of the Virginia airport facilities will pany is South Central V~rginia, James River follow.

Bus Lines around Richmond, and Bristol- Highways Jenk~ns Bus Lines in Western Virgln~a.

The highway network In Virginia is com- Most intercity bus services in Virginia are posed sf several classes of highways ranging operated as parts of a nat~onal network. The from interstate freeways to local roads. Figure greatest amount of service is from Richmond to 4-1 shows both the Interstate and the Virginia Washingtor along 1-95 as part of the major East arterial networks. The Interstate system con- Coast service. Another major route is from the sists of 1-81, through the Shenandoah Valley; Northeast to Tennessee. operating in Virginla 1-64, from Greenbrcr, West Virginia through from Washington, D.C to the Shenandoah Clifton Forge. Staunton, Charlottesville, Rich- Valley and along 1-81. There is, in addition. a mond, Newport News, to Norfolk; 1-95, from north-south servlce along U.S. 29. A subs~diary Wash~ngton to Ri~bmond, Petersburg, and part of the East Coast servlce operates along toward Rocky Mount, North Carolina; 1-85 from the Delmarva pen~nsula to Norfolk There are Petersburg toward Greensboro. North Carolina; very few east-west routes, the major ones be~ng and 1-77. running north-south through the Norfolk - Richmond - Charlottesville - Staunton, western part of the state.

and Norfolk - Richmond - Lynchburg -

The Virginia arterial network includes the Aaanoke. The entire state is served by at least fgllowing roads: U.S. 58 through the southern one bus per day, and many communities isol- part of the state from Norfolk to Martinsville: ated by other intercity modes are served by bus U.S. 29 from Danville through Lynchburg.

l ~ n e s . ~ Charlottesville. Culpeper, and Warrenton to Rail Passengers Gainesville; U.S. 360 from South Boston to There are four main scheduled railroad Richmond and on to Tappahannock and routes through Virginia, three run by Amtrak

Reedsvl lle; U.S. : 7 from Chesapeake to Fre-

and one by Southern Railway as shown In dericksburg and Warrenton U.S 13 on the F~gure 4-2 The major north-south services Delmarva peninsula; U.S. 460 from Norfolk operate from Washington. Amtrak operates t h r o u g h Petersburg and Lynchburg to three tralns a day to Rlchmond and south, spl~t- Roanoke; and from Chrlstiansburg to Bluef~eld.

tlng at Petersburg: and. one train a day to through a part of West Virginia. and then from Bluefield through Tazewell to Grundy: U S 301 Charlottesv~lle. then to Charleston. West V ~ r g ~ n ~ a . and west Southern Ra~lway also oper- from the Toll Br~dge over the Potomac at ates from Wash~ngton to Cherlottesville.

Newburg to Bowling Green and then Vlrgln~a Lynchburg. Danville, a r ~ d polnts south. Three 207 from Bowling Green to 1-95 at Carmel Church; U.S. 225 from Mart~nsville through tragqs run to Lynchburg and two go beyond.

Roanoke to Cl~fton Forge; U.S. 58 Alternate. Sourhern has f ~ l e d applicat~on to abandon some of ~ t s servlce from Ablngdon through Norton to Pennington Gap. U.S. 23 from Pound throdgh Norton to the In add~t~on to the north-south routes two Trl-C~ty area: Va. 7 from Wash~ngton to run east-west one on the Chesapeake & Ohio from Newport News through R~chmond and ' Rand McNally G?lden Anniversary Ed111on Road Allas Charlottesv~lle. connectlng wlth the Wash~ng- Rana ZdcNally Chicago 1 1 1 1973 ton sectlon to the west: and, the other on the ' Department of Hqhways V l r g ~ n ~ a 1974-~OWlcral Stale H~ghway Map. Commonwealth ~f Vlrqln~a Rand McNally Chcaqo Norfolk & Western from Norfolk thtougi?

111 1974 Petersburg. Lynchburg, and Roanoke to Cln- ' Russell's OW~cral Nat~onal Molor Coach G u ~ d e Russell s clnnatl.'

Guldes Inc Volume 47 No 8 Cedar Rap~ds Iowa May 1975 ' Amtrak All-Amer~ca Schedule, Wash~ngtom May 15 1975 Air Carriers

. _ . _ _ _ _ . OW~cral Ra~lway Gu~de. The North Amerlcan Fre~ght

The major alr sarrle: alrports In the state Sewlce E d ~ t ~ o n Nat~or~al Ra~lway Puhl~cat~on Company Volume are located at Roanoke. Rlchmond. Norfolk.

107 No 5 New York. March Aprll 1975 TABLE IV-l VIRGINIA AIRPORT OWNERSHIP

Description Public (N - 49) Private (N - 151)

Number Percent Number Percent Paved L~ghted ?Inlighted Unpaved Lighted Unlighted Runway Lengths (feet) Under 3,000 3.000 to 3,999 4.000 to 4,999 5,000 to 5,399 6,000 to 6.999 7.OC3 to 7,999 8,000 to 8.9% 9.900 to 9.999 Source: Preliminary Draff of the Plan for the V.rginia air Tra-~sportation System, Richmor,d, Virginia, 'kcember 1974.

Newport News. and W&l~ngton. D.C.. served ?ublicly and privately owned.B Of these, three by Nat~onal and Dullds airportsboth operated are .seaplane bases. and 24, heliports. The re- by the federa! gwern-near. As rhown in Figure maining 200 sirports vary from mere grass strips offerin9 little or no aux~~iary services to 4-3. intrastate :erv:,e is heavily focused on Wdshington Nat~onal Airport. with 8-10 fl,ghts a the mammoth Dulles Airport with ~ t s 11,500-foot day to and from !he major V~rg~nia airports. The runway capable of handling jumbo jets.

ma:or Intrastate hlr carrler is Piedmont Airlines.

Only 49 airports, or roughly onequarter of Other carriers serv~ng the slate ic2lude the total in the state. Ire publicly owned, ds Allegheny. United. Eastern. and National shown in Table IV-I. %era1 m~~nicipalities, of A~r!ines. The best interstate service is offered at course, jointly operate airports through airport Richmond a m Norio!k. with Roan.-! a, Newport authorities such as the Peninsula Airport Com- New. and Tri-C~ty providing lssser amounts.

mission. which is sponsored collectively by Several commuter alr carrlers ?.Is0 serde York County. James City County. Newport \'~rgin~a airports with Philadelphia, Baltimore.

News. and Hampton. Despite the small number and Washi~gton Dulles being principal desti- of publiclv owned facilities, 92 airports (46 of natic.1.. I r ~ r n Virginia cities.'

them pr~vhtely owned) are listed by the FAA as open to the public. Interestingly,three publicly Virginia Airport F 3~11ities GV.-ed facilities are r,t ~ncluded within this .'\t present 227 a~rcraft landing f%.;i'it~es ex- category. In adol,,,. ,, six airpork; were ?ban- 1st r l the Commonw~alth c' Vir, 1 . i . both doned in 1974. one of them publicly owned.

-

Eleven airports in the state a : : served by (:ffrcral Arrlrna Gufda. (04G) Nonh Amerlca~ Edlt~on.

r.. ~leduled air carriers. w ~ t h n~ost of the remain- Reube- H Do.ielly Publlshen Oak Brook Ill. May 15 1975 ~ n g 189 airports possessing only general avia- ' FA.\ Bulletrn 7 M 7 . Washlrgton D C . hlay.27 1975 t~on ?apabllity often extremely limiter1 at best.@ ' DIVISIO~ of Aeronautics Prelrrnrrary Draff of the Plar for the Vrrqrr fa Arr Trer~si ?rtetron System. R~chrnone. F?cernb, r. 1914 ?do-thirds of 'Jiie~nia airports, for example, (3) Develop an air transportation have maximum runway lengths under 3,000 feet and 86 percent have runways shorter than 4.000 system which is both adaptable and flcxi- ble to changes i n air transp~rtation de- feet (see Table IV-I), yet publicly owned airports mcnd and to technolog~cal innovations in possess >y far the better facilities. with 45 of the transportation strvlce.

49 offer~rtg runways both paved and lighted.

Forty have maximum runway lengths of at least (4) Provide an air transportation 3.000 feet and well over one-third of all publicly system which will be technically, econom- owned airports h;.ve runways In excess of 5,000 ically, and politically feasibie for imple- feet By contrast prwately owned airports boast mentation.

only 20 facil;!ies 'out of a total of 151) with run- (5) Provide a system of airports which ways both paved and liohted. Most have run- will produce social and economic benefits ways less tnan 3,000 feet and only one airport to citizens of the Commonwealth.

has a maximum runway length ove: 5.000 feet (6) Develop an air transportatior, Thus. the privnte airport In Virginia. charac- system which provides an effective mepns teristically. is of very limited capac~ty. while the to safe. reliable, and convenient intra- and publicly owned facility usually malnta~ns a interstate travel.

much h~gher capability and can accommodate more numerous and more varied types of (7) Min~mize loss and inetfic~ent use aircratr. of natural resources, and avo~d degrada- tion of human and natural environment^.'^ TdE VATS PLAN The system concept that was selected es- The Vlrginia Air Transportation System sent~ally requires. first. the expansion of exlst- (VATS) Plan attempts to identify airports that ing fac~l~ties and. second. the establishment of are expected to be needed In the Cornmon- a lrm~ted number of add~tional facilities where wealth of Virginia by 1990.

present airports do not exist or cannot be ex- Financed in part through an Airport System

panded '- . w e t expected demand. The fifteen-

Planning Grant. pursuant to the Airport and Air- year ; : ztructured around three stages of way Development Act of 1970. the plann~ng and develo~~nant-1976. 1980. and 1990. Detefml- research that resulted In the f~nal proposal was nants ior establ~shing the faclllty requirements the joint effort of a special consulting team and of each plan,iing dlstrict i n the Commonwealth the V i r g ~ n ~ a Divisi~n of Aeronautics. Because (there are 22 d~str~cts in all) are the forecasts of any airport expecting federal funding must be based aircraft and annual operations during included In the state plan 2s well as In the Na- each of these time frames. For example. In tlonal A~rport System Plar~ (NASP). the s~gnifl- Plannlng D~strict 3. Virginia Highlands Airport.

cance of the VATS Plan to each localtty should with 30.000 annual operations and 24 based not be underestimated. In zdd~!~on. as the plan- a~rcraft In 1974. is expected to have 11 1.774 an- ners were careful and ins~stent in pointlng out.

nual operatlons and 39 based a~rcraft by 1990 .'

actualization of the plan depends almost en- T h ~ s w ~ l l then require faclllty expansion from tirely on local initiative and local justification.

"Bas~c Util~ty" to "General Ut~l~ty.' and an ex- Federal and state suppert for each airport wlli pend~ture of $1.43 million in oublic funds '' not be automatic.

Similarly. two other ex~stiag a~rports in the Sev6.n goals of the VATS Plan (which was planning district are scheduled for exapnsion schedultd for putlic release shortly after thls based upon these same criteria: however. the document went to press) h.?ve been proposed planners emphasize, and rlghtly so. that the development of the system depends not so by the planners. These are to: much on forecas!~ made in 1975 but -ither on (1) Provlae a system of s ~ r ~ o r t s whlch events as they actually unfold in the next fifteen effectiveiy complements a balanced total years. In short. "the plan IS Intended to ldent~fy transportation system for the state.

a probable development and the development (2) P r o v ~ d e an a l i transportation of options tnat sholrid be kept open (emphasis system which is compatible with the recog- added) '." (F~gure 4-4 shows the classtfication nize@developmental polic~es of the state.

zcheme used In the VATS Study to categorve reg1c.n. and commun~ty the operat~or.sl capabll~ties arid the navlga- tlona; a ~ d (NAVAID) standards of V~rglnia air- Ibrd pp 3 8 ports ) Accord~ng ' > FAA f~gures for Dtcember 19iJ Overall, the VATS Plan will ~nvolve 96 air- Pr~t~mrnary Draft of the P,an lor the Vlrglnla A I ~ Transpor- ports in 72 d~fferent countves and will vary from tat on System op crt large air carrler f a c ~ l ~ t ~ c s to unpaved str~ps pro- ' Ibrd. p I FIGURE 4-4 CLASSIFICATION OF GENERAL AVIATION AIRPORTS IN VIRGINIA Operational Roles BASIC UTILITY (BU): This type of development accommodates abobt 95 percent of the general aviation props~ler fleet under 12,500 pounds. There is no special activity criterion required for this type of airport.

GENERAL UTILITY (GU): T h ~ s type of a~rport accommodates substantially all ~ e n e r a l avi~tion propeller aircraft under 12.500 pounds. At least 500 annual i:inerant operations of aircraft between 8,000-12.000 pounds are required.

BASIC TRANSPORT (BT): These airports accommodate all general aviation aircraft up to 60,000 pounds MGW, including propeller transports and business or executive jets. A BT airpor: must indicate at least 500 (existing or forecast) annual itinerant operat~ons by aircraft between 12.500-60.000 pounds hrl SW.

AIR CARRIER (AC): These airwrts generally accommodate transport category aircraft between 60,000 pounds and 175.000 pounds MGW. The minimum requirement for this type of airport is at least 10 exist~ng or forecast itinerant DEPARTURES per week (or 1,040 itinerant opetations per year or season) by either the critical type aircraft or ONE of the ap- prop1 iate families of aircraft.

LOCAL SERVICE (LO): These airports have known or forecast development limitations or expansion constraints.

L~mitations and constraiats include: Environmer tal AiVspace Topography Proximity of s~milar services Land use incompatibility Ownership status Financial infeasibi lity Surrounding development strangulation Low activity projections vid~ng limited service. Seventy-seven existing runways and an equal number also have run- airports are included in the system. 26 of them ways in excess of 3.000 feet. The PI-n proposes now pr~vatelv owned. In add~tlon. 15 existing that no public funding b? expenaed for expan- facilities whlch are presently cpen to the public, sion or Improvement of 33 airp~rts. Seven of have been excluded from the systenl. Although these will be deleted entirely from the system, no new air carrler airports are planned to si~p- 20 downgraded, in class~fication, and six will plement the 11 now serving the state. 19 new remain unchanged. Hgwevtr. A 4 existing air- general aviation facilities w ~ l l be constructed as polls will be funded wit11 m a t of them merely shown In Table IV-ll Eventually seven airports ma~nt:'?ed at their present levels and :ne rest will be "deleted" or phzsed out as these newer upgraded eithsr one or two levels. As indii -led ones replace them, so that by 19%. 89 airports in Table IV-ll, the largest single ca~sgory of will covprise the ent~re system. Fifty-four of general avia'im airports kill be "Ger~e-al these airports already have paved and lighted Utility," followed by "Loczl Service."" A map showing these airport locatic.-;s is shown in " /bid Figure 4-5.

FIGURE 4 4 (continued)

Navaid Standards I

BASIC UTILITY AIRPORT (BU) VOR ApproacLif possible froin existing faciltQe, either on or off the airport; other- wise, SDF* or NDB* if over 10,000 annual total operatioqs.

SAVASI Dr VAPI * GENERAL UTILITY AIRPORT (GU) VOR with straight in approach-if possible from existing facility, either on or off the airport; otherwise: TVOR if over 10.C00 annual total operat~ons SDF* or NDB* i f under 1C 000 amual !otal operations.

VASI-2 RElL at instrument approach end of runway.

BASIC iRANSPORT AIRPORT (BT) ILSNALSR if 35,000 total operation5 or more (MLS after 1980) VOR with straight in approach and inal approach fix-if possible from existing facility; either on or off the airport: otherwise; TVOR RElL at approach end of ru iway ~f no IJIALS, otherwtse oppocite end.

VASI-2 GENERAL TRANSPORT AlRPC RT (GT) ILS/(S) SALS with RAIL i~ 35,000 total operations or more (MLS after 1980) Straight in VOR approach with FAF and (S) SALS with RElL if less than 35,000 total operations RElL at opposite end of runway from ILS VASI-2 at each end of runway (VASI-4 with large tlrrbo-jet operat~ons) SCHEDULED AIR CARRIER AIRPORT I LSIALS (MLS after 1980) Straight in VOR approach with FAF RElL at opposite end of run-rvay from ALS VASI-4 each end of runway NOTE: Low cost. low power DME could be programmed with TVCR and ILS,NLS facilities.

*Indicates SAVAtDS not eltgtble for 100% %riel al fundtng.

Source: Preliminary Draft of the Plan for the V~rginia Air Transportar/on System. Divts~on of Aercr,aut~cs. Richmond. Virginia. December 1974.

REGIONALISM AND AIR the Appalachian Regional Development Act have sttmulateo bureaucrats and pol~tictans to TRANSPORTATION look at problems on a regional level 1nstea3 cf That a regional approach to air transporta- lrstng a local or state perspective In add1.8on.

tion has been adcpted in Virginia should not be many treatments of urban transportat!on have surpristng. i4egional problem-solving has focused on the need for looking at pr3blems of achieved wide recognition s .jce at least 1965 an entire urban region or metropolltan area.

when the Water Resources Planning Act ad- rather than those of a serres of adjoining clt:es dressed the problem of development on a The move toward the formulat~on of a regional regional basls.15 Such acts as the Public Works perspecttve for alr transportat~on polrcy has and Economic Development Act (Title V) and received addittonai impetus from :he follow~ng sltuat~ons.

'' Wenpert Norman ' Pol~tlcal and Adml-,istrat~be Real~rles of Reg~onal Transportatlor Plannlng In Joseph De Salvo r l ! 1 1 The airways are becom~ng ~ncreasingly P e r s m t ~ v e s on Reg~onal Transporfatron Plan r,ig Lex~ngion congested w ~ t h traffic No longer do many per- Books. Toronto 1973 p 387 TABLE IV-ll CLASSIFICATION OF VATS AIRPORTS 1975 1990 Categories Existing Planned To Be Built Total TOTAL 77 Sources: Data comp~led from FAA Bulletin No. 75-83. May 27, 1975; The V~rgrnia 1975-76 Airport Directory; 1974 A 0 P A Airport Directory; and Preliminary Craft of the Plan for the Virginia A i r Transportation System, December 1974.

sons acquainted hith air transportation plan- means a cons~deration of alr pollcies for a nlng feel ~t sufficient for each airport to have I' reglon of a state without too much regard for own master plan and from there on to "let a ?he existence of alternative transportatlon hundred flowers bloom."16 Specifically. :?e modes or the desirability of their development reglonal alrport an An addltlonal Impetus for dealing with a . .IS a representation of the avlatlon problem on a regional basis came from the Ad- f a c ~ l ~ t ~ e s reqdlred to meet the ~ m m e d i ~ t e visory Commission on Intergovernmental Rela- a. - future air '-3nsportat1on needs of [he tions whic4 described in a series of stud~es the reg~onal,'metropol~tan area and is con- need for treatlng the metropolitan area il? a s~dered a syhsystem of the date a i r ~ o r t more coordinated way. Regi~nal cooperation system It recommends the extent, type. was further encouraged by the Federal In- nature, st. zral locat~on. estimated cost, tergovernmental Cooperation Act of 1968.

an3 t~mlng of atrport development required designed to create a national policy of ~nclud- to meet the a v ~ a ~ i o n needs of the ing for consideration local, regional, and state reg,~nal/metropolitan area and provides Interests when adinlnlstering federal aid pro- the framewor' for definitive and detailed gr?.ms tor local de~elopment.'~ As Wengert has ~ndlvidual airport master plannlng."

pointed out, one must add "where" to Harold Lasswell's definition of politics as "who gets i: General avlatlon a~rcraft often Impede.

what when and how" to stress the importance or are Impeded by, the actlvlt~es of commercial of the geographical allocation of benefits and carrlers at hub airports leading to the demand for rel~ever alrports in the vislnlt) and the need for sorrbe type of plan encompasslng more th?n One of the most important declslons. ~f not just one alrport: though possibly stnoping short the most Important. made In any reglonal of t ? m g a full statewide plan.

analysis is the declslon as to where to locate the boundaries of the reglon. The boundary (3) Ideally there should be a transportation locat~on declsion may alter si7nificantly plannlng pollcy which attempts to coordinate whatever decls~ons are to be m,?de on a alr and ground transportatlon for maximum effi- reglonal basis. Usuallv a variety of crlterla are ciency; however. by "regional transportation used for drawing boundaries. For example, the policy" VIS-&vls the airplane, one typically decision to form one plannlng distrlct for avla- . - - t ~ o n development for the cornblned New River ' 'Plan ,ng the State A~rpor! System AC 1 5 0 50%-3A.

Department of Transportat~on W a s h l n ~ t o n D C June 1972, p 8 6 Valley, Fifth. Central. and West Piedmont plan- ' l ~ l d P .$ ning districts of Vlrgln~a was motivated by the perceived existence of close economlc ties In- " Wengen op crt . p 387 '' Ib~d . p 389 terrelated multimodal travel patterns, and simi- iar urban versus rural environments of these Ing Woodrum Alrport, the Roanoke facility lo- four regional areas.20 The National Resources cated just a few mlnutes away via Interstate 581 Plannlng Board in 1935 concluded that there Roanoke c ~ t y officials p o ~ n t e d out that were no general criter~a for reg~onal adrnlfiis- Woodrum contr~buted over $300.000 annually t r a t ~ v e boundaries, and that generalized to the city and thls f~gure would stabilize or

reglons could probably not be determined " even decrea:? if a reg~onal airport were to at-

tract passengers who would normally fly out of Reg~onallsm often benefits some at the ex- Woodrum. F~gure 4-7 shows the facll~ties pre- pense of others. An illustration of thls can be sently exlst~ng at Woodrum seerl from a study of the proposal to expand the Roanoke Virg~nia a~rport versus a decision to Meanwh~le, the Director of the Virglnia construct a new reg~onal fac~lity to serve three Divlslon of Aeronautics, said he saw no obsta- comm~nities. lncludlng Roanoke.

cle preventing the four-district study by the summer of 1974. He observed that an T h e o r e t ~ c a l l y , local. r e g ~ o n a l . and "unl~m~ted" opportunity exlsted. The four-dis- statewide planners each funct~on with the trict area could have a plan that would look welfare of the publlc as a paramount goal: ahead 40-50 years and serve the 30 cltles.

however, what seems to be in the best interest counties. and towns represented in the four of a local community may be seen as obstruc- planning district^.^' tive and counter-productive to the Interests of a whole state or even of a substate region. The Several months later the Virg~nia Air Roanoke airport controversy IS illustrat!ve of Transportation Systen? planners who were one of the most d~fficult areas of confllct resolu- charged w ~ t h planning air transportat~on t~on, namely the problem whlch arises when a facilities for the whole state through 1990, made s~ngle reg~onal alrport IS proposed to serve iwo a preliminary recommendation that luture or three urban centers. In order to understand transportation needs In the state could be met the conflict whlch arose In the Roanoke area.

principally by expanding facilities to handle one must examine In some deta~l that c~ty's future g r o ~ t h . ~ " posltlon related to its a~rport f a c ~ l ~ t ~ e s With respect to the Roanoke case. thls In March 1974 a steerlag comm~ttee from meant that state planners favored the expan- four V ~ r g ~ n i a plannlng dlstrlcts (New Rlver slon of Woodrum to meet projected 1990 avla- Valley. Fifth. Central, and West P~edmont) ap- tlon needs Statewide planners were careful !o proved a study des~gn for an alr transportat~on say that thls did riot necessar~ly mean that a system study of the area. The study was funded reg~onal airport servlng Roanoke. and other by a $100.000 grant from state and federal cit~es, was ndt feas~ble. Spec~f~cally, for the four agencies; its purpose was "to develop a plann~ng districts which had aec~ded to plan reallstlc plan whlch w ~ l l furnlsh ~nformat~on and the~r alr iransportatlon facll!tles together. the gu1dc"nce for the governing bodies of the coun- state pla~lners had scheduled the construct~on ties. r l t ~ e s and towns to be concerned prlr,- of a rel~ever alrport to be b u ~ l t in Bote!ouri clpally w ~ t h the provis~on of adequate air County to handle excesslva general av!ation transportat~on fac~llt~es. . . "Z2 Even as t h ~ s trafflc The program manager for the VATS reg~onal a~rport study commenced, some were Study emphasized that the lndlvidual locality concerned that its recommendat~on would be must approve any alrpor! construstlon pldns the construction of a reg~onalalrport. :,ome- before they are carried out.

th~ng many Roanoke city offlc~als opposad.

In October 1973. the City ot Roanoke sub- The c ~ t ~ e s of Lynchburg and Mart~nsv~lle m~tted a pr~or ~ t v l ~ s t of a~rport projects to the had expressed an ln!erest in hadlng a reglona~ FAA Included In thls list was a propossd 900- alrport w ~ i ~ c h would serve those two cities plus foot extension of the east-west runway of Roanoke (see F~gure 4-6) Roanoke offlc~als felt Woodrum Land not currently part of the a~rport that the rllty of Roanoke could not benef~t from would have to be acqulred and federal funds such an alrport since it would meall downgrad- .vere sought for this purpose A formal request for Lrlds \ . J ; I ~ not subm~tted pend~rg the results of an englneerlng study a ~ d the complet~on of ' Blue Rlcqe A I ~ Transponat~cm System Study Program Narratrve p 2 the env~ron,~~ental Impact statement : Wengurl o p crt p 399 Presently, under certa~n weather condl- '. Reg~onal Alrporl 13 Joker In Deal The Roapokc 7,nes t~cns. jets wlrh full loads are not ab:e to leave March 19 1974 Woodrum uslng ~ t s 5.9b0-foot runway " lbrd Woodrurr: 1 s one of the fastest growlng alrpor's '' Prelrmrnary Draft o l rhe Plar, for tPe Vrrgr?ra Arr T r a n s ~ ) o r - talron System. op ot p 2 In the state In terms of takeoffs and land~ngs ~t BLUE RIDGE AIR TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM FIGURE 4-6 ROANOKE ROANOKE MUNICIPAL (WOODRUM) AIRPORT Sectional Chart: Cinc~nnati Elevatior : 1 1 75' bt.: 37" 19' Long.: 79" 58' Location: 3 N Ml'es NW Runway: 15-33/ 5800'x 150' Paved Runway Markers: No 11s a IIROA IQ 11 Traffic Pattern: Standard Left unless otherwise d~rected by Control Tower Runway Lights: Dusk-Dawn Rotating Beacon: Dusk Dawn Fuel: Shell/BO 8 100 Octane, Jet Maintenance: A 8 P Phone: 703/981-2531 Operators: Hillman Flying Service, Phone: 7031366- 091 1, Piedmont Aviation. Inc , Phone. 703/ 366- 0696; Air Transport Associates, Phone 7031563- 1686; Ellis Flying Service, Phone: 703/ 366-0332 Remarks: Attended 24 hrs. (Fuel 0600-2300). Flight Instruction, Charter Pestrooms, Taxi, Rental Cars, Restaurant, Limousine, Lodging Nearby, Airline.

Public Telephone: Yes Ph. of Int.: Fairy Stone State Parks, Children's Zoo on Mill Mountain, Dwthat State Park, Natural Bridge, Virginia Western Community College.

Published Instrument Approach: Yes ROANOKE MUNICIPAL (WOODRUM) AIqPORT FIGURE 4-7 could support the additional alr trafflc whlch a to Walt u n t ~ l the results of that reglonal study lengthened east-west runway would provide. were completed. On the other hand. the ASSIS- Increased alr traffic at Woodrum would mean a tant D~rector of the Divlslon of Aeronautics s a ~ d that he "couldn't endorse V ~ r g ~ n i a airport pro- crowd~ng of the general avlatlon facllltles there; jects ly~ng dormant until 1990."25 He sald the however, the tentative state plan calls for a rel~ever airport at Botetourt County to accom- Virglnla Air Transportatlon System Study.

although not yet public. w9uld not depart from modate generai aviatlon traffic, leaving ~ t s bas~c concept that airports In the 4th. 5th.

Woodrum (expanded) freer for the larger jet 11th. and 12th plannlng districts (whlch com- carriers prlse the South Urban plannlng ctstrlct of Early In 1975. FAA offic~als wrote to the V ~ r g ~ n ~ a ) shoulc! expand ex~stlng .sc~lltles City of Roanoke that ? ~ n d s for extending the rather than bullding new reglonal alrpot's.

runway would not be :orthcomlng pendlng the In February 1975, the project manager for results of the reg~r~nal study whlch was con- rhe Blue Ridge Alr Transportatlon System Study s ~ d e r ~ 3 b u ~ l d ~ r ~ g a new reglolial dlrport to of the four Virginla plannlng districts sald that serve the Roanoke-Lyncliburg-Mart~nsville there had becn a rnisunderstand~ng and that the area Any major a~rport expanslcns would have extension of the runway at Woodr1;m should not ' A ~ r p o r l R ~ n w a , Plan Called Prenralure R o a n o ~ e be held up pend~ng the results of the reglonal Times January 8 1975 air transportation study. Echoing the argu- tation study, opponents of the Woodrum exten- ments of Roanoke city officials, the argument sion proposed a regional airport to be located was made that Woodrum is already a reglonal in the Penhook section of Franklln County (see airport, the fastest growing one in the state. Figure 4-6) to be used by Roanoke. Lynchburg, and Martlnsville. A county supervisor said that Roanoke city officials were urged to apply for- mally for federal funds to extend the Woodrum Woodrum was beginning to have a blighting runway without delay.26 effect on the surrounuing community and he quest~oned the advlsab~i~ty of further expand- Additional reasons for withholding funds ing that facility. Further, the argument that a for acquisition of the land to allow a 900-foot 900-foot extension of the east-west runway extension of the east-west Woodrum runway would result In bringing in larger aircraft such (estimated to cost over $4 million) included a as the Boe~ng 727 on a regular basis was ques- general shortage of federal funds for eligible tioned2' capital projects throughout the country, and a series of letters to the FAA from residents near A new regional airport might result in non- th: proposed runway expansion site protesting stop service to Florida and the West Coast.

that expansion. Such flights from the reg~on's three airports which service commercial airlines currently Meanwhile, within the environs of Roanoke have layovers in Washington, D.C., Chicago, or itself. opinion became div~ded as to whether or Atlanta.

not the Woodrum runway extension was ad- visable In March 1975, the Roanoke County's The Blue Ridge Air Transportation System supervisors went 01 ecord opposing the exten- (the name the four planning districts chose) slon on the g r ~ u n d s that (1) there had been Study in June 1975 contlnued a series of open c ~ t ~ z e n protests and (2) reg~onal planners meetings des~gned to elicit public oplnion should have an opportun~ty to study the whole about the future of air transportation in the regional situat~on.

South Urban reglon of the state. Planners carefully llsted Wo reg~onal development alter- The cha~rman of Roanoke C~ty's alrport natives, po~ntlng out that nothing definite had commlsslon claimed that the county super- yet been decided about bu~ldlng a new reg~onal visors should have checked w ~ t h the airport alrport versus expanding Woodr~m cornm~ssion before lssulng a negative state- ment about the proposed runway extension. He (1) Upgradlng exlsting facilit~es within also pointed out that if the city wa~ted for the physical Iim~ts, providing a "reliever" results of the regional planning study before airport for Roanoke.

extending the runway at Woodrum-a Walt of (2) Upgradlng existing facil~t~es withln approximately a year-the expansion would physical limits only.

cost an extra $500.000 due to rising construc- tion costs and ~nflat~on; thus. ~t would be pr~ced (3) Consolidating services now pro- out of existence. Those hho argued In favor of a v!ded at Roanoke. Lynchburg, and new reg~onal air fac~l~ty ma~nta~ned that such Danville at a new regional alrport an airport would help attract more alr service to s~te.

the Roanoke area as well as serve passengers Developing a reglonal alrport at the (4) from Lynchburg and Martlnsv~lle. Besides. ex- exlstlng Roanoke s~te.

pansion of VJoodrum IS somewhat l~mited in the (5) Developing a reg~onel a~rpott at the iong run by geographic cons~derations slnce current Lynchburg stte Roanoke is s~rrr,.~ided by mountains. A new regional f a c ~ l ~ t y could be !ocated so as to Insure In late June 1975. the Blue Ridge Air contlnued expansion without interferirlg with Transportation System p!anners scheduled already exlstlng residentla1 or cornmerc~al land publ~c meetlngs In each of the four regional uses p l a n n ~ n g d i s t r ~ c t s With the prornlse of evenhandedness and fairrlzss, the Blue R~dge Toward the end of May 1975, t'le coritrover- Air Transporta!ton System planners w ~ l l attempt sy over a proposed rsg~onal air facil~ty versus to walk the narrow line between aeronaut~cal extending the runwzy at Woodrurn intensifled requirements and polttical rarnlflcat~ons At a rr.setlng held to Get cit~zen Input on the goals and objectives of a reglonal air trarispor- The Woodrurn a~rport coritroversy IS not simp:y a case of the c ~ t y planners versus the Planner Sa:s Study Needn I Srall Runway Aid Roanoke aroused local cltlzenry who appose expanston 71mes Febriia.y 21 ,375 Except for those persons llvlng r~ght around the 'Relocation of A ~ r p o n S t ~ r s Fuss 9ndndke T~mes. May 24 1975 alrport, most people who are aware of the Issue historical, geographical, c~ltural, and socio- seem to want the east-west runway extended.

This will mean the Woodrum will continue to economic characteristics of the area. .9 study of bring in revenue for the city and continue to be general aviation's role in community develop- the central air tacility in the vicinity. Opposition ment must address itself to this fact and to the dissimilarity that often exists between com- to this course of action comes largely from resi- dents in the immediate vicinity of the airport munities with comparable general aviation and persons living in the Lynchburg and Mar- facilities and between airports serving com- tinsville areas who favor the construction of a parable communities, The study of unique regional air facility, but for two different characteristics of each community is a neces- reasons. The people who live around Woodrum sary supplement to statistical enalyses wliich want the regional facility in the hopes that are based on state and national date.

Wocdrum will not be expanded and they will For this reason a determination was made not be disturbed by the noise and pollution of that several communities with general aviation jet traffic. People who live in the other two cities services should be studied in depth. The com- favor a regional airport because it w ~ u l d offer munities andlor aviation facilities selected for better air service than they now have, in a fairly study and the general criteria used for selection accessible place (presumably somewhere are givsn in Table IV-Ill. An attempt was made equ~distant from the three cities) but far enough to obtain a broad cross-section of community away from them that their own residences types and associated general aviation facilities.

would not be affected. The forces favoring ex- Richmond is a large urban community with tension of Woodrum's runway cite the initial a publicly owned air carrierlgeneral aviation recommendations of the prelimir.;iy VATS airport provid~ng most of the general aviation study which favors expansion of existing services in the area. The interaction between facilities rather than the building of completely alr carrier and general aviation along with re- new regional airports. Those favoring a new cent financial failures of rrvo general aviation regional airport approve of the stand taken by operators on the airport provided good factors the Blue Ridge Air Transportation System plan- for a study deal~ng with airport financing and ners who say that Roanoke and Woodrum will FBOs.

receive due consideration, but that there are 16 Williamsburg presently has a privately counties and many cities in the area being owned airport which serves the small urban studied and all will get just consideration.

commun~ty whose primary activities are tourism Attitudes about the expansion of Woodrum and the College of William and Mary. The airport versus the building of a new regional Peninsula Airport Commiss~on has sponsot ed a facility are very much a function of one's study of the need for additional general aviation geographical location. Moving major air facilities to serve the Williamsburg area and act transportation facilities away from Roanoke will as a reliever for the Patrick Henry Airport in please some and will disappoint others. One Newport News.

might be tempted to dismiss the problem with a Some question exists concerning the superficial "let some objective person living in merits of developing a new airport as compared Richmond or Washtngton. D.C. decide what IS to expanding the existing private field. The best for the region." On the other hand, what of study dealt with the qusstion as well as with i k the doctrine of local control? Should the per- related question o! the development limitations sons liv~ng in a region have the right to decide of privately owned airports.

about the future of air transportation in their Virginia Beach represents a fast growing area? If so, should it be majority rule in tha: tourist and recreational community. State plan- area? Such considerations are KnoNn for their ners have selected the communitv for two new complexity. and in the end, some type of com- proposed airports to be develop& dur~ng the promise must be made. In this particular case a next 15 years. Since the community does not lack of federal funds for brand new alrport con- have a general aviation airport at the present struction may iorce a decision in favor of ex- time, the community served as an interesting panding floodrum and possibly builditig a case for the study of the initial phases of plan- rsl~ever airport in Botetourt County ning.

SELECTED CASE STUDIES Chesapeake is a suburbanlrural com- munity presently served by two general aviation Rationale private airparts and one air carrier facility. A new airport is proposed by Chesapeake C ~ t y Communit~es and their airports, like peo- F lanners to provide expanded general aviation ple, have individual personalities reflecting the services hs 2n inducement for new industry.

TABLE IV-Ill VIRGINIA COMMUNITIES FOR CASE STUDY fw Popr- bmn /-A) Urban 518.319 Publlc Secondary (1) Rlch m n d Rlchard &SIC 190.200 Termlnal and Semi- Medrum Transport Ramp Expan- E Byrd Indus- Density ston trial (Capital) Urban 9.069 (2) Wllllams- Wlll~amsburg- Prlvate Feeder General 70.000 New kvrl Resl- WrCI Jarnestown Low Utlllty p r m s e d dentlal Denslty for develop Tourlst ment (3) Vlrglnla New Urban 172.106 Neutral None - Two new air- Fte~rea- Beach Alrport pots pro- tlonal posed for development (4) Chesapeake New Urban 89.580 Neutral None New A~rport Rural Airport p r o p o s @ j for develop ment Unlike other communities studied in this sec- Blacks in the community do not see the air- tion. Chesapeake involved few major issues or port to be of e~ther a direct or indirect benefit to plannlng problems but did highlight the fact them. They disapprove of the burden it creates that some facilities can be planned and on the city budget, although the airport has developed routinely. never become a major political issue. The black leaders in the community would bs satisfied i f Richmond the losses ,.;suiting from airport sponsorship were borne equitably by all of the communities Introduction benefiting from the airport. They estimate that Richard E. Byrd International Airport was only 40 wrcent of the airport use originates in selected as a case study for two reasons: the City of Rkhmond.

(1 ) Its community of interest spans many political boundaries. Yet, the airport losses Airport History and Development were being borne by its sponsor alone. The Byrd Field was constructed in 1928 by the pendlng solution nlay be of interest to other air- City of Richmond for use as a general aviation port communltles with the same problem.

airport (Figure 4-8). During World War II it was used by the Army, deve!oped extensively, and (2) Although Rlchmond has sufficient ac- returned to the city in 1947. Over the years it has tivity to support financially healthy fixed based developed into a baslc transport (BT) category operators (FBOs), two have failed recently airport served by three cert~ficated carriers (for- while others have indicated a less than desira- merly four) and one commuter air!lne. The air- ble financial status.

port enplanes approximately 503.000 air carrier Both of the above problems are discussed passengers per year.2g Military air carrier and In the followin& sections.

general aviation contributed to the 178.525 Community Characteristics operations per year. of whlch the air carriers Byrd airport serves Richlnond, the capital accounted for 25,174; the scheduled air taxls of Virginia; Henrico County. in whlch it is lo- for 10,568 ;rnd general avlation for 98.543,'O cated: Chesterfield County, which hac ,, I t s own Nearby air carrier airports are Dulles and general aviation airport; and, other cJm- Washington National, one hundred miles to the munities composing the Richmond Standard north; Roalioke, 100 miles to the southwest: Meiropolitan Statistical Area. The populations Charlottesville. 60 miles to the west: Patrick He- vf these areas are?

nry and Norfolk about 55 and 80 mlles to he Population % of southeast, respect~vely .

SMSA Byrd is surrounded by general aviation air- R~chmond 249.621 48 ports of varying sophistication: Chesterfleld Henr~co County 154.564 30 County Airport 13 miles southwest; %inover Chesterf~eld County 76.855 15 Other 37 479 7 County Municipal Airport 20 miles ndrm. N e R~chmond (SMSA) 518.319 100 Kent County about 10 miles east; and, Hopewell 17 mlles southeast. All of these have some im- The City of Richmond has a mixed in- pact on the general aviation market in the Rich- dustrial base, which Includes some of the mond SMSA.

largest corpora!ions in the chemical, metal.

The City of Rlchmond, as previously stated.

tobacco, paper, and other manufacturing In- sponsors and ope, atas the airport. It is Justrles. The city has experienced the common therefore responsible tor funding improvement outflow of affluent residents from the central or expansion prograrris at the airport It has re- city to the suburbs. and the resulting flnanclal cently undertaken such a program. with an estl- dlfficultles resulting from thls exodus The mated value of $10 million dollars. $7 mllllon of delinquent tax rate has risen, welfare roles have whlch had been invested by 1971 These Im- swollen, and the clty populatlor~ has decreased prwements Included the reconstructio!i of the Presently tne black pop~llatlon comprises terminal and an Increase In the number of gates about one-halt of the total population In spite of from four to five Three rr7re sates could be ad- the annexahon of a port lor^ of the pre- ded at an addltlonal cost of approximately $7 do;nlnately whlte Chesterfleld County.

mllllon fhls pJrtlon of the Improvement pro- gram, along with $2.7 million In other Improve- ' 1970 Cersus ments, has been postpor.ed for flscal reasons ' Nal~onal A ~ r p o ~ l System Plan Unlted Stales Depanrnerit of The ramp was also expanded extensively to ac- Transportat~on ' W a s h ~ n ~ t o n D C 1updd.ed 19741 commodate additional alrcraft parking posl- F A A A I ~ T r a f l ~ r A c t ~ v ~ l y Calendar 1975 U S Dept of Transportat~on Wash~ngton D C 1975 tlons.

RICHMOND RICHARD E. BYRD INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT Sectional Chark Washington Elevation: 168' kt.: 37' 30' Long.: 77' 19' Location: 7 N Miles E of Richmond Runway: 15-33/ 9000'x 150' Paved Runway Matken: Yes/ 15-33 Only TraRii Pattern: As directed by Control Tower Runway Lights: Dusk-Dawn ~ o t a t i n ~ Beacon: Dusk-Dawn Fuel: Exxon, Gulf, Shell, Texarr all types M a i n t e n a m A 8 P Maloi, Radio Manager: A E. Dowd Phone: 804/ 222-7361 RM.: 804; 353-0273 Operators: Aerelndustries, Inc., Sandston, Va. 23150, Phone: 804/ 222-72 1 1 ; Ho!laday-Aero, Inc., Box 7306, Sandston, Va. 231 50, Phone: 804,/222-7311; Hawthorne Avlat~on, Byrd Airport, Sandston, Va.

231 50, Phone: 804/ 222-7256 Remarks: Attended 24 Hours, Air Carrier Service by P~edrnont, United, Altair, Eastern Pts. of Int.: State Cap~tol, Poe Shrine, St. John's Episco- pal Churcn, Confederate Cap~tol Building, V~rg~nca Commonwealth Univers~ty, J. Sargeant Reynolds Communcty College Published Instrument Approach: Yes Source: Virginia 1974-75 Airport Directory, Division of Aeronautics. State Cor- poration Commission, Richmond, Virginia.

RICHARD E. BYRD INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT FIGURE 4-8 Airport officials were somewhat optim~stic short of covering operating expenses, in addi- about the extent of the need for expansion and tion to the new debt service. This resulted in a thus provided capacity in excess of the pro- drain on the city taxes and the city looked to thz jected airline requirements. Prior to the expan- airlines to cover thd deficit through an increase sion, the airport charged landing fees of 10.56 in landing fees. The city devanded an addi- per thousand pounds of landed weight and was tional 366 per 1,000 pounds in landing fees, and breaking even. At that time Byrd was served by the carriers offered only 136. After a somewhat Eastern, Piedmont, United, and National bitter struggle, a compromise of 18t was Airlines in the order of their number of agreed to. Reduced airline schedules and a enplaned passengers. During the expansion decline in the general economy, however, have program, National applied for and was given Still left the city with an annual deficit in the air- consent by the CAB to withdraw service, leav- port budget.

ing only three carriers to support the expansion Altair, a commut&airline, introduced The sources of airport revenue break down service to Richmond in 1968.

approximately as follows:31 The expansion program left an annual revenue which was about $350,000-$500,000 Mr'Lne Pa-nOers 1911 in (OW) % Direct (in ticket chargej I' "Revenue Expenditure Prolect~ons." R~chard E Byrd AII- ~ort." June 25. 1974 (C~ty Staff study) Boarding fees (security) 294 Landing fees 1 84 service FBO. The other two are complementary; Terminal rental i.e.. they do not compete in the services they 645 44.2 provide. For all practical purposes then, there Indirect are two full-service FBOs.

Ground transportation 176 The FBO leases generally provide for an Restaurant 69 annual ground rental of 104 to 126 per square M~scellaneous concessions 82 foot for the use of the land on which their own Parklng . ; L 372 buildings are constructed; a similar but higher 701 48.0 rate for ramp area; a varying rate for building All Otk v s rental or buildings owned by the airport; a fuel Utilltles 9 flow charge of 1.54 per gallon on fuel used or Ground rentals 51 sold; and, a requirement that the FBO maintain Building and the premises (including ramp) in satisfactory hangar rentals 53 7.8 condition at his own cost and expense. Other terms are similar to typical leasas at other com-

1 .a 100.0

parable airports.

The airport has the capacity to provide the community 'with automobile piking, terminal.

Airport Role and Support gates, and ramp facilities which are adequate to Although the airport has had some dis- meet air carrier passenger demands for some putes with the airlines, and has experienced years to come. Available aviation services in- some mild opposition to expenditures from clude scheduled airline service connecting to councilmen, it appears to enjoy a rather com- most parts of the world; commuter airline ser- fortable position in the community.

vice; air cargo service; express cargo service; Some of the largest corporations in the air charter in fixed-wing or helicopter; aircraft country, with based aircraft in the Richmond maintenance including major :epairs and SMSA, are: Allied Chemical, DuPont, Phillip alteration; aircraft interior design, installatior..

Morris, Universal Leaf Tobacco, Ethyl, and upholstering; aircraft painting; parts sales R e y n o l d s M e t a l , R o b i n s C h e m i c a l .

for most amraft; avionics sales and repairs; Thalheimers, and Chesapeake Co. It has been fueling and liae or ramp service; aircraft park- assumed by the city courlcil members and the ing and storage; hangar and office rental; city administrators that these industries benefit aircraft sales; and, a unique large commercial from the existence of the airport and that the operator service devotec exclusively to flying city benefits from the existence of the indus- live eels to the Netherlands to satisfy a some- tries. Neither group felt the airport was dispens- what unique culinary demand.

able, and all favored reasonable development if General aviation operations account for the costs were equitably distributed.

100,000 to 120.000 of the 178,000 total opera- All city council members interviewed tions at Byrd Field. The mix of this traffic in- showad enthusiasm for future industrial or cludes 68 percent itinerant and 32 percent commercial development for Richmond. They locally based.

all recognized, however, that with 75 percent of To serve approximately 130 based aircraft, its land already developed, the city itself has 11;- the airport has provided faciliteis to house three tle or no land left for such development. Thus, full-service FBCJS.~' These facilities have they are willing to accept regional expansion as usually been constructed by the FBOs, on land 2 gubstitute for city expansion. Although the leased from the airport. The FBO owns the benefits to the city may not be direct, these facility until the expiration of the lease, at which benefits are nevertheless sufficient to warrant time ownership reverts to the airport. Of the the support of city council members for the con- three current operations, one has been in busi- cept of regional expansion.

ness for over 30 years and the second for over Presently the airport itself makes the 16 years. The third has been in business for following contribution to the community over 13 years and is presently involved in payroll: bankruptcy proceedings. A portion of his busi- Number o l Payroll ness, in the form of a flight school and a charter Employ- operation seems to have survived the A~rport Department 78 $ 704 bankruptcy and cont~nues to exist as a fourth Employed on Alrport 1.400 11,000 FBO. Only one of the existing FBOs is a full- (Full Time)

-

" A full service FBO I S one prov~dlng all of the forst 8 ser- Mtlltary (Part Time) 900 (not ava~lable) vices 11qted In the General Operatlens SecVon of Chapter I $11.704 Applying the generally accepted 2.7 mation of such a commission to operate the air- multiplier discussed in Chapter Ill, th 1 total im- port and to share in some as yet undetermined pact on the community could approach $31.5 pro-rating of the losses.

million.

Goochland County, adjacent to Henrico on the northwest, has no airport and by joining Commission or Authority such a commission could gain some say in the The only significant community dispute in- future of the airport with a presumably low volving the airport involves several surround- share of the deficits.

ing communities benefiting from its existence.

Henrico County, which provides an estimated Henrico, on the other hand, is already en- 30 to 35 percent of the enplaned passengers joying the benefits of the airport without shar- using the airport, has imposed ad-valorum ing the debt and is further collecting revenue taxes (personal property, sales, etc.) on both from its operation without renewing future property and transactions at the airport. De- obligations. Its motives in agreeing to the com- pending on the estimator, it is reported that mission may be somewhat more subtle. Opi- these taxes range from $150,000 to $250,000 an- nions of those interviewed included the follow- nually. Henrico County dces not make this in- ing: formation availa7le tothe public. The city tax- (1) Realization that if they did not agree, payers insist that they are mostly in the lower the legislaturewould prooably revoke their tax- income brackets and thct they derive little use ing authority on the airport and extend it tc from the airport, while those in the surrounding Richmond by extra-territorial powers. The loss cou..rties who are gaining the most in conve- of tax, and the possible threat of granting the nience, are not sharing the fiscal burden. They extra-territorial powers to the city in recogni- believe that the burden should be shared by the tion of the regional character of the airport, creation of an authority or commission com- could be extended to other areas and might posed of all users and tbat the debt service eventually lead to annexation on a "community should be spread equitably among those users.

of interest" basis.

This loss of revenue from the airport by a (2) Recognitionof the fact that the increase political jurisdiction which does not contribute in traffic and the resulting increase in revenues to the support of the debt service, encouraged at the airport within the next few years should Richmond to seek lega: means for capturing result in a break-even operati~n and the county this taxing authority by extra-territorial powers.

could therefore "buy in" with a gradually On three occasions the airport staff has ex- diminishing exposure for future obligation.

amined the licsnse plates on autos in the long- (3) Recognition by the courts of the and short-term parking lots to determine the benefits derived by the county from the airport mix of autos from surroundiny counties.

and its consequent responsibility for contribut- Although this may not be an exact indicator of ing to its support.

the origins of enplaned passengers, it appears Chesterfield County apparently has re- to have sufficient correlation to make it worthy jected participation in such a commission. It of examination. The results were as follows: has been suggested that this attitude may have 1 - 1971 1974 Location developed from previous attempts on the part of % % % !he city to take land and population from Richmond 30 17 30 Chesterfield by annexation, without their con- Henrico (Co.) 29 27 32 Chesterfield (Co ) 11 23 10 currence.

Other 30 33 28 Chesterfield County has established its 100 100 100 own general aviation airport and acquired suffi- cient buffer zone land in the immediate airport Although the state legislature did not take vicinity to promote industrial development. It is affirmative action on approving the extra-ter- possible, therefore, that Chesterfield could ritorial power of Richmond, as requested, it did

operate the airport a! .. ,ass in competiti~~l with

imply unofficially that unless the dispute was Richmond, and derive its benefit from develop- settled locally between the city and the county, ment of the surrounding industrial land and the it would intervene and settle it for them. The subsequent land or building rentals which legislature also passed legislation enabling t9e could conceivably support the airport in the creation of a joint commission. future.

Henrico County and Gwchland County The other major problem confronting the have indicated a willingness to join in the for- airport concerns the FBOs and the future level of general aviation services at Byrd Field. recognize the need to generate add~tional pas- sengers to warrant compliance with that re- The number of based aircraft, annual quest. Presumably, the resulting increase in operations and. the relatively large number of revenue will offset the amortization deficit with- corpcrate jets would seem to support several in the next ten years. The establishment of a FBOs. Recent developments, however, have commission w ~ l l eventually spread the burden yield&? the conclusion that three or more of the deficit over a more equitable base.

operators will dilute the existing business such tnat the financial health of all operators will be The future of bealthy FBO operations in ieopardy. As previously mentioned, one firm seems to depend heavily on preventing the which has been in operation for 13 years is pre- forced introduction of unnecessary competi- tion. This may be accompl~shed by the develop- szntly in bankruptcy. rhis failure was preceded by that of another firm which had been in busi- ment of minin,um FB0 standards by the airpor: r:ess for a shorter period. In addition to these staff.

. -

two failures, one of the other operators is pre- I he shift to commission cjr authority c m - pared to sell if business conditions fail to im- trol is consistent with the trend toward recog- prove.

n~zing the regional nature of small-to-medium hub airports. It could shift the temporary tax Key airport officials and existing operators burden to a broader base. thereby dispelling are of the opinion that Richmond can support the only severe political opposition to the con- no more t h a ~ two FdOs. The airport has taken tinued healthy growth of Byrd Field.

the position thar dt this t~me it is not seeking a tenant for the facilities to be vacated by the fail- ing FBO. The FAA. however, informed the air- port staff that since they had accepted federal Williamsburg funds for airport development, they were obli- gated to entertain all applications and to permit Introduction anyone who is reasonably responsible to locate There appears to be some interest in deter- on the airport regardless of the total business mining whether present airport facilities in the northern peninsula area of Tidewater should be ava~lable. Th~s obligation stems from the "open to public" clause of the A~rport and Airway expanded, or whether a new airport should be Development Act of 1970. built.

Airport officials are presently preparing Some argue that present airport facilitiss In compliance standards to assure a level of ac- the area can expand to meet predicted aviation tivity and investment on the part of the new FBO needs and that new facilities or even sign~fi- that will not d~scrlminate against the present cantly expanded facilities are, or will be, FBOs who have extensive investments in the needed in the next 20 years. The final draft of airport.

the Virginia Air Transportation System Plan has projected that a new general utility airport for All of the FBOs agreed that fuel sales, l ~ n e the northern peninsula area is fea~ible.~' Also services. and tenant facility leases (hangar ren- the Peninsula Airport Commission has con- tal and off~ces) were the most profitable ac- tracted for the preparation of a master plan t l v ~ t ~ e s and required the least investment.

studying the feasibility of a new airport.

Following in order of profitability are avionics repair, aircraft repair, and flight school and At present there exists a privately owned general av~ation airport in Williamsburg (Figure charter. It seems obvious that minimum stan- 4-9). One justification which IS being cited for dards are necessary to prevent a third operator from coming in with a minimal invest- the construction of new airport facilities is the possible lack of premanency of that airport.

ment acd sklmming the top off the fuel and line servlce revenue. slnce private alrports can be sold at any time at the discretion of their owners (although no evi- The outlook for Byrd Field, compared to dence of poss~ble sale exists at the present other airports today. seems 10 be sat~sfactory. It tlme).

appears that air carrier traffic w ~ l l continue to grow at th~s f~eld. An economic recovery will Three basic questlons will be drtalt with In help such growth. Many persons interviewed connection wlth alr transportation facil~ties on bel~eved that increases in schedules by the the peninsula: (1) What is the community at- a~rlines would be in order-but all seemed to t~tude toward the need for new general aviat~on facilities? (2) What factors lead to the various conclusions about need? (3) What are the " V~rgrnra Arr Transporlatron System Study. Frnal Draft.

R~chmond. Vlrgln~a July 1975 possible ways of meeting such a need?

WILUAMSBURGJAMESTOWN AIRPORT Sectional Chart: Washington E:evation: 46' 1.1.: 37" 14' Long.: 76' 43' Location: SW Edge of Town Runway: 13-3 1 / 3200'x60' Paved Runway Markers: Yes Traffic Pattern: Right traffic Runway 13 Runway lights: Dusk-Dawn Rotating bacon: Dusk-Dawn Fuel: Exxon/8O & 100 Octane Maintenance: A 81 P Maior Managor: I. Lenchner Phone: 804/ 229-9256 Ros.: 804/877-1853 Operators: Colonial Air Center, 100 Marclay Road, Williamsburg, Va. 231 85 Remarks: Attended Daytime, Flight Instruction, Charter, Restrooms, Rental Cars, Taxi, Snacks, Food & lodging Nearby. Public Telephone: Yes Ph. of Int.: Colonial Williamsburg, Jarnestown, James- town Festival Park, borktown, College of William & Mary, Williamsburg Pottery Factory, Sherwood Forest and other James River Plantations Published Instrument Approach: N o Source: Virginia 1974-75 Airport Directory, Divis~on of Aeronautics, State Cor- poration Commission, Richmond, Virginia.

WILLIAMSBURG JAMESTOWN AIRPORT FIGURE 4-9 75,000 persons by the year 2000."34 In the area Community Characteristics oi transportation facilities. the document en- Williamsburg is located in the upper couraged the development of a regional plan, Virginia peninsula. Table IV-IV summarizes the with emphasis on the buffering of transporta- socio-economic characteristics of York and tion facilities from adjacent neighborhoods.

James City Counties, and the City of There was no specific menticn of an airport.

Williamsburg. Since land i s scarce i n Williamsburg, the highest rates of growth have Williamsburq is currently revlsing its Corn- occurred in York and James City Counties. Due prehensive Plan, which was develcped in 1968.

to the tourist industry, the localities hope to es- In a brief section of that report. Williamsburg's tabllsh orderly growth patterns to support con- inactive Central Airport was mentioned as a tinued tourist appeal. James City County has good location for a new airport, with both the recently articulated its goals in a document size of the site and the lengths of the runways which stated that these goals include the pro- noted as adequate.'= At the time this plan was motion r~f "sound, long-term. and balanced published. the W~lllamsburg-Jamestown Air- economlc development." and the adoption of port was being developed in the midst of a "necessary controls so as to limit the popula- heated c o n t r ~ v e r s y . ~ ~ Both of these airports are tion of James City County to no more than shown in Figure 4-10.

Seeking greater ~ndustrialization. York I' James Crty County Communrty Goals and Oblectrves County recognizes the importance of a general l5 71.e Comprehensrve Plan. W~ll~amsburg Vlrgln~a aviation facility in the upper peninsula. A W ~ l l ~ a m s t a r g Counc~l IS Opposed to Name S~re of New revised comprehensive land-use plan for the A~rport.' ~ e w p o r t News Dally Press. June 9. 1967 TABLE IV-IV DEMOGRP.PHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UPPER PENINSULA Item York County James City County Williamsburg Population Density (No./Sq. MI.)

Median age Median family income

O / O with income $15.000 +

Median school year finished Persons/Household % in Manufacturing % in White Collar % Government Workers Total Employed ?4 Rural Farmland Source: 1970 U.S. Census Data.

vate airport on a fifty-acre site on College county is currently under consideration. In the Creek was proposed. The new general aviation plan, some parts of the upper county which are close to Williamsburg are to be opened to light airport was to relieve Patrick Henry Interna- ind~stry.~' The proximity of a general aviation tional Airport in Newport News by attracting general aviation planes to the upper peninsula.

facility has been noted as a factor in industrial development. The a~rport would eventually handle as many as The major industry in the area is tourism, 250 genaral aviation planes and construction of wit5 Colonial Williamsburg, Busch Gardens, a hangar large enough to accommodate 10 light planes was planned.38 Jamestown Festival Pa,!<, Jamestown Island, and the Yorktown Battlefield as points of in- Almost immediately there was opposition terest. Other principal employers include the to the proposed airport. coming mainly from College of William and Mary, and Eastern State residents of the Birchwood Park and Marlboro Hospital. The following major manufacturing subdivisions, and from the parents of establishments are located within the area youngsters attending Rawls Byrd Elementary served by the airport: Dow Badische (synthetic School. These groups opposed the site on the fibers); Anheuser-Busch. Inc. (malt liquors); grounds that planes would pass too close to American Oil Company, Inc. (petroleum refin- Byrd Elementary School and to a city water e r y ) ; J e f f c o M a n u f a c t u r i n g Company tower in the vicinity, thus creating safety and (aluminum cans); Synthe-Tex Corporation noise problems. The airport, however, was to (carpet yarns); and, the seafood industries in be designed so that planes taking off would be York County (packaged seafoods).

no closer than three-fourths of a mile from the elementary school.

History and Development of Williamsburg A hearing was held by the State Corpora- Aviation Facilities In February 1967, the Central Airport tion Commission (SCC) in Richmond on July 3, owned by the College of William and Mary, and 1967 to act on the application for the new air- serving the Williamsburg area was closed to port. Neither the James City County Planning the public. This left the upper peninsula without Commiss~on nor the Board of Supervisors general aviation facilities at a time when the could have stopped construction of the facility tourist business in the area was growing. since the county had no applicable zoning ordi- Shortly thereafter, the construction of a new pri- nance.

Federal and state agencies were not con- Edwards. "York Cornm~ss~on Votes Land Use "Mary 8 vinced that the proposed site was unsafe or that Plan Approval. "Newport News Datb Press." September 10. 1970 it would result in high noise levels in the sur- "Amport Uslng C~ty Name May Dlsturb W~ll~amsburg."

rounding communities, especially it the flight Newport News Tfmes Herald. September 10. 1970 Aeronautics and the FAA inspector, complaints patterns for the airport kept most of the air traffic on the James River (south) side of the air- continued. The James City County Board of port. The SCC approved the airport and the Supervisors eventually agreed to look into the decision was appealed immediately to the State matter of reported violations of the air traffic Supreme Court of Appeals (Virginia Supreme pattern at the airport. A list of 10 planes which Court). Opponents of the proposed airport reportedly violated the traffic pattern and fiew argued that the SCC liad applied wrong stan- too low over residential districts was compiled dards to the evidence presented at an October by the residents of the area in April of 1971. The 1567 hearing when permission was originally identification numbers of several airplanes had granted for construction. They asked that the been copied by Birchwood residents and were case be sent back to the SCC for a second reported to the County Board of Supervisors.

hearing, at which time additional evidence Though he had spoken favorably about the air- port at its dedicatior, a community leader who could be presented. In June 1969 the State Supreme Court of Appeals affirmed an action has previously led the appeal of the SCC deci- by the SCC licensing the Williamsburg-James- sion to license the airport, has continued his leadership of those dissatisfied with the airport.

town Airport. The coilrt's ruling confirmed the He looked into the role of the State in enforcing Commission's decision wiiich found that the proposed airport "met or exceeded all safety the aviation laws of Virginia and concluded that criteria of the Virginla code and commission "for all practical purposes, there are no laws."42 rules and regulation^."^^ "If the State Division of Aeronautics is to en- force the law," he said, "then they should come In September 1970, the airport was dedi- down here and enforce them. I'm not saying it is cated officially with the words "this county is the airport manager's fault-it's the pilots' fault the thlrd fastest growing county in the state and and we need to get someone down here to en- this airport is one good example of the type of force the traffic pattern."43 The Divis~on of progress James City County has made in the Aeronautics did investigate complaints a year past 15 years. "'O earlier but no action was taken on the matter.

WiIIiamsburg-Jamestown Airport was open In telegrams to the SCC, The State Division for only a short time when many concerned in- of Aeronautics, and the FAA, a candidate for divlc;uals and interes' grocps which had origi- the house of delegates in the Democratic pri- nally opposed it began to complain that mary asked that he be informed as to who has airplanes were flying too low over residential regulatory authority. "Many citizens in the areas. A representative of the State Division of Birchwood, Kingswood and Kingspolnt ieas Aeronautics visited the airport to Investigate are desperately concerned about the failure of these complaints, and to interview residents of aircraft to follow prescribed traffic patterns.

the nearby Birchwood subdivision. Later, a thereby endangering school children," he said General Aviation Operations Inspector for the in his telegram.'' A new Investigation did not Federal Aviation Administration was also con- turn up any pllot-violators. The FAA lnspector sulted and said that he did not "cons~der the told the chairman of thc James City County airport hazardous if pilots would adhere to the Board of Supervisors that. after careful in- traffic pattern. Of course there are all kinds of vestigation, no violators were found bilt that pilots just as there are all kinds of automobile there was a plan to educate pilots further on the drivers. But I think the directions being taken required traffic patterns. He suggested that a are good-putting all the traffic on the southern sign ir dicating the traffic pattern be "posted in side of the field."'' a more conspicuous place."45 Despite the findlngs of the State Division of Objections to the Williamsburg-James- " "Jarnestown A~rport Llcenslng Afflrrned. Newport News town ~ / r p o r t from nearby residents have sub- Dar!y Press. July 17. 1969 sided in recent years. Some of the airport's "W~ll~amsburg-Jamestown Alrport Oftlc~ally Dedicated. ' neighbors st111 refer to it as a nuisance, but ~ t s Newport News Dally Press. September 21 1970 existence has been accepted.

" 'Opponents of A~rport Fall to Sug( 'st Improvements. ' Newport News Dally Press. August 30. 1970 Various air shows have been held at the Supewlsors to Seek lnvest~gat~on ol Air Tratt~c Pattern Williamsburg-Jamestown Airport. These shows V~olat~ons. ' Newport News Dally Press. May 1. 1971 provide community entertainment, and gener- " lbrd ate revenue for local businessmen from the " lbrd money spent by alr show participants. Over " "No V~olal~ons Found In Probe of Area Alrporl. Newport 5,000 persons attended the first air show in News Daily Press. May 26 1971 1971 and were offered a variety of skydard and "Over 5.000 Attend Alr Show ' The Vfrgrnra Gazene. July 30. 1971 cround er~tertainment:~ The F!ying Dentist As- sociation flew in 100 planes to the airport for equipped to serve general aviation with the their annual meeting in William~burg.~' Thirty following f a c i l i t i e ~ : ~ ~ experimental and antique airplanes partici- (1) One runway: Asphalt. 3,300 feet x pated in the second annual Colonial "Fly-In," 60 feet, 13-31 .53 drawing a crowd of 200 persons in 1973.48 (2) Runway lights: Low intensity, Existing Aviation Facilities operating during hours of dark- The Virginia Peninsula is presently served ness.

by three airports in addition to Williamsburg- (3) Rotating Beacon, operating during J a m e s t o ~ n . ~ ~ These are: hours of darkness.

Patrick Henry Airport at Newport (1) (4) Wind Indicator: Tetrahedron and News, 15 miles southeast (25 segmented circle (to show right minutes by Interstate 64). This is the hand traffic for Runway 13).

air carrier airport serving the penin- su la area. It presently has adequate Unicom: Radio advisory service is (5) facilities for general aviation; offered on frequency 122.8.

(2) Gloucester Airoort at Gloucester, (6) Weather Information: FAA Flight 15 miles northeast (not c.1 the Service Station, Newport News peninsula or readily accessible through telephone foreign ex- from Williamsburg due to its loca- change.s4 tion across the York River). This is Surface access and parking: Two- (7) a general aviation airpoft with lane paved access road and 7,000 facilities comparable to Williams- square yards of auto parking.

burgJamestown airport ; and, The general aviation services and associ- and, ated activity on the airport can be grouped in (3) West Point Municipal Airport at three categories as indicated by the firms offer- West Point, 19 miles north. This is s ing the services.

general aviation airport with better The Williamsburg-JamestownAirport, Inc..

runway facilities (three 5000-foot provides airport services (fuel sales, aircraft tie- runways) but is not attended and is down, and routine services) for visiting pilots.

too distant to serve the peninsula Two full-time employees and the following area effectively.

facilities are used for thsse services:ss The Williamsburg-Jamestown Airport is (1) Aircraft parking and tie-down: currently classified in the NASP a "feeder," Capacity for 60 aircraft with space low-density facility, serving up to the general for approximately 12 on paved ramp utility class of aircrafts0 The final draft docu- area.

men: of the VATS Plan projects that the airport will play a local service role during the next 15- (2) Aircraft Fuel Sales: Two 8,000- year p e r i ~ d . ~ ' The reason for this classification, gallon tanks provide storage reflecting a reduced operational role, is the capacity for 80 and 100 octane fuel proposed addition of a second airport to serve through contract with the Exxon Oil the area. The proposal will be discussed in a Corporation.

subsequent section of this case study.

(3) Customer lounge/office area: lo- The Williarnsburg-Jamestown Airport is cated in a portion of a 20-foot by 60- foot structure that was a hunting lodge.

" P~cture captlon In The V~rgmla Gazette. June 23. 1972 '' Ed Offley. 'Thlrty Home-Bu~lt Planes Swoop Into 'Fly-In'.'

Colonial Aviation, Inc. ledsss a portion of The V~rg~nra Gazetta. November 9 1973 the facilities and operates a flight school and '' Vrrgrnra Arrport D~rectory. Dlvls~on of Aeronautics. State aircraft rental facility. The firn: IS an FAA ap- Corporat~on Comrn~ss~on. Richmond. Vlrglnla. 1974 proved agency for the training of pilots with Pri- " 1972 Nationel A~rport System Plan. Federal Avlatlon Ad- vate, Commercial, and Flight Instructor mlnlstratlon. 1972 Computer update February. 1975 airplane ratings. The school also holds ap- " Virgrnra Arr rrensporletron System Plan. Final Dratl, op proval by the Veterans Administration for the Arrport Master Record. Wrllramsburg. Federal Av~at~on Admlnlstrat~on August 1972 training of veterans. Approxima:ely 40 students '' Magnet~c d~rectloq 130 (Southeast) and 310 (Northwest) are in training at any given time and receive " Fore~gn Exchange provldes for no-toll calls from alrpori their instruction in three. single-engine Cessna '' Personal ~nspectlon of fac~lllles on July 15 and 19. 1975 aircraft which are also available for rental. The owner-manager is also an FAA Pilot Examiner ownership. It was generally agree0 for certification flight checks and is assisted by that the area could not support two airports.

!hree flight instructor^.^^ The third operation is Colonial Aviation The airpart is fulfilling a definite (2) Services which operates as a maintenance aeronautical requirement for the facility through leasing a portion of the 950- area.

square-yard hangar. The firm provides major (3) The runways and approaches are and minor repairs to aircraft, utilizing two adequate for existing based aircraft mechanics in addition tcj the owner.57 but runway extension would pro- In the area of aircraft activity, the vide expanded capacity for larger Williamsburg-Jamestown Airport falls into the business-type aircraft.

low density category, based on an estimated A taxiway to serve runway 13-31 is (4) 70,000 operations of which 40,000 are due to needed along with additional paved the 23 locally based aircraft and 30.000 are due parking and tie-down facilities.

to itinerant aircraft.58 The airport is currently operating at 36 percent of its capacity.59 (5) T-hangars are needed for aircraft storage.

An evaluation of the Williamsburg-James- town Airport can be made by an assessment of Maintenance of the airpo* lighting (6) the facility in comparison to others serving system could be improved.

comparable communities. The following The existing services offered are (7) evaluation (based on the scheme presentsd in rated as "good" to "excellent."

Appendix F) has been computed for the air- The cost of service is generally (8) port:60 considered fair. One owner stated Rating Posribk ti;?t he saves about $400 per year in per=nal property taxes and tie- Air Transportation down charges by being based at 1 5 Services Williamsburg-Jamestown rather Operational Capability 2 5 than at Patrick Henry Airport.

Aircraft Capacity 1 5 General Avis tion Services 4 4 Wiiliamsburg-Jamestown Airp~rt, Inc. has Ground Transportation 3 3 invested $500,000 in time, equipment, and land.

Total 11 22 When the airport was under construction, the state provided $75,000 in matching funds for Based upon the above evaluation the air- runway construction, This sum is amortized port is strong in the area of general aviation over a 20-year period, during which the airport services and ground transportation. The low must stay open or pay back the remaining por- rating in air transportation services is due to the tion of the loan.

lack of air-taxi services. The lack of an instru- Extensive improvements to the airport have ment approach and the short runway limit the been considered and the state has offered to operational and aircraft capacity ratings of the match filnds witn the airport owner for the airport.

development of additional aircraft parking assessment of the facility by selected facilities. The need for this expansion is doter- tenants and users is summar,zed as follows:6l mined from the expected increase in traffic due ('1 The existing be to the Bicentennial activities in 1976. As of this in preference 'On- date, no development plans have been strutting a new airport, even if such finalized.

development would require public Infenflew w~th Mr Tom Johnson and Mr Carl MacConnell SUPPO~ of W I I I I ~ ~ S ~ U ~ Q - ~ a m e s t o w n Airport. JUIY 16. 197s In 1974, interest was initiated in the I7 development of a new facility with the argument " lbrd that Patrick Henry was crowded and that " A~rport Master Record. W~ll~amsburg, op cit. Willlamsburg-Jarnestown had reacned Virginia AIr Transportation System Study. Flnaf Draft, capacity. The Peninsula Airport Commission Techn~cal Supplement. Vol II. Pan 2. June 1975. p 51 subsequently obtained funds for a study of the See Appendix F for code of alrporl evaluat~on crllerla feasibility of the new genera! aviation airport.

*' Intenflews ol selected tenants and users on Julv 14 and 16.

Two-thirds of the cost of the study came from the FAA Planning Grants Program, with the rest Jamestown operators admitted that a new coming from state and local matching funds.62 general utility airport in the northern part of the peninsula possibly would attract owners of Possible support for the construction of a small aircraft to base their planes there and new general aviation facility in the peninsula would seriously hgrt business at the present also came from the final draft of the VATS plan Williamsburg airport.)B5 which projected a new airport for the northern peninsula eventually to become a reliever for If taxiways were constructed and tie-down areas were expanded as planned, the Patrick Henry's overflow of general aviation traffic. "By 1990 however, it will take both Williamsburg-Jamestown Airport would be Patrick Henry and its reliever. Williamsburg- capable of accommodating at least 30 addi- Jamestown, to accommodate the almost tional airplanes. The general aviation facilities at Patrick Henry Airport are also capable of 600,000 annual GA operations projected fcr handling a large increase ir, both traffic and P l a n n i n g D i s t r i c t 21. By d e v e l o p i n g Williamsburg-Jamestown as a high capacity based aircraft. With a 3,200-foot runway, the reliever, it would be possible to accommodate Williamsburg-Jarnestown Airport cannot ac- this GA demand and the more than 33,000 an- commodatr business jets, while Patrick Henry can. When Route 199 is opened to traffic, the nual air carrier operations projected for 1990."63 Designation by the VATS plan as a driving time between Patrick Henry and "reliever" is important since it implies a high Williamsburg will be reduced to about 25 priority status not accorded all proposed new minutes, thus making it more convenient for the airports. residents of the northern peninsula to use Patrick Henry.

The bases on which the new Williamsburg Airport has been designated as a reliever for As for the objection that the Williamsburg- Patrick Henry by the VATS plan are that: (1) Jamestown Airport could be sold at any time because it is a private facility, some say this is Norfolk Regional Airport cannot expand its air not too likely to happen. They point to the ac- carrier facilities much beyond their existing level; (2) Patrick Henry, the only other air car- ceptance of a stdte matching grant by that air- rier a~rport in the region and currently operat- port for improvements, as a sign of perma- nence. The matching grant is conditional upon ing at 50 percent capacity, will thus be forced to the airport staying in operation for 20 years or expand its air carrier operation; and, (3) Patrick Henry is also an international airport and its in- paying back all or part of the matching funds.

ternational operations are expected to grow.

There is another objection to the construc- Thus the VATS plan draws the preliminary con- tion of a new facility ir, the northern peninsula clusion that by 1990 Patrick Henry will need a based on the argument that general aviation reliever serves only a limitod portion of the community.

Admittedly, there are community-wide services Opposition provided by general aviation-such as air In addition to variations In the estimates of rescue or pest control-but a large portiorl of the numbers of aircraft which will be based in general aviation is concerned either with busi- the peninsula In future years, another item ness flying or pleasure flying and as such, it where differences in opinion exist relates to the should rank far behind other servlces which are adequacy of existing aviation facilities. While more w~dely used by the community. Persons some describe existing facilities as inadequate who argue in this way object to the allocat~on of for accommodating project~ons of future need.

public resources for the construction of new the FBOs at both the Williamsburg-Jarnestown general aviation airports, which serve a and Patrick Henry Airports shy that they have selected few. This type of objection is not ample room for expansion in the future, and unique to the peninsula area. Persons of this that a new airport is not really necessary. (It school of thought argue that airport develop- should be observed that the Will~amsburg- ment should be funded mainly by the local com- munity des~ring it, and that a community should .' The cost to a local~ty of hav~ny a masler plan drawn up IS relatively small In t h ~ s case the 12-1,l percent not l f ~ n d e d by the not have such developments i f it cannot support federal and state governments was prorated among the cltles of them financially.

W~ll~amsburg Newport News and Hampton, and York and James C ~ t y countles accord~ng to populat~on Future Developments " Vlrqrnra Alr Transportaf~on System Study.Fl~nal Draft. Vol Although the firs; phase of the Master Plan II. Part 3 July 1975. Append~x F. p 10 is st111 under study, speculation is already under " Ibld way, as to where the new airport will be located.

"Johnson and MacConnail lntervlew July 16. 1975 al W~lltasmburg-Jamestown Alrporl Several possible locations are being discussed peninsula depends to a great extent on whose informally. One is ihe airfield at Camp Peary in projections prove to be most accurate in the the upper peninsula. While the use of a : : exisl- coming 10 to 20 years. When Patrick Henry and ing facility seems to be preferable to building a Williamsburg-Jamestown begin to find that new airport in some cases, a joint-use ayree- more persons want to base aircraft at those ment between the ~ u b l i c and the military at fields than there is room; when T-hangars are Camp Paary might not be a good idea. Camp built and there are long waiting lists for their Peary, for example, is in the process of becom- use; and, when the number of operations at ing a central storage area for munitions, which these airports begins to reach the maximum may not be compatible with an increase in air- safety limit, then the need for expanded or new port activlty.

airport facilities will become apparent to an in- Another possible site for a new general creasingly larger segment of the interested utility airport in the peninsula is the old aban- public. The problem is how to forecas: the tim- doned Cen4ral Airport which is located on land ing and extent of this aviation growth ac- owned by :ne College of William and Mary. In cur :tely.

the mid-1960'sthe airport manager died and the College dedided to close the airport and use Virginia Beach the land for building married students' housing; Introduction however, the housing was never built and the The City of Virginia Beach provides a airport site remains in disrepair. After Central unique opportunity to study the relationship of was closed, a motel was built some distance general aviation to community development for from the end of one of the major runways. but if the following reasons: (1) the current Status of it should interiere with flight patterns, that run- general aviation in the city; (2) the recommen- way could be extended in the opposite dlrec- dations of the Virginia Division of Aeronautics tion so that required altitudes could be reached for aviation facilities in the area; (3) the well before planes were over the motel.

demographic, geographic, and socio-econom- There are two other possib~lit~es for the ic characteristics of the comrn.~nity; and, (4) the status of zviation-rel~ted planning in the city location of a general utility airport on the penin- sula. One is to buy and expand the present (1) Current Status. The City of Virginia Willianisburg-Jamestown Airport which would Beach has no active general aviation facility lo- lnvolve paying the fair market price and being cated within its jurisdictiorl; therefore, the level certain that the runway would be expandable to of general aviation activlty from a "within-the- the length needed to handle busmess jet city" perspective is nonexistent. City residen?~ aircraft. Cdlege Creek limits expansion to the who require general aviation services must use north. and a southerr extension would mean the facilities located in adjacent communities.

that air traffic would be taking off much closer The city does have a great de?I of aviation to the Rawls Byrd Elementary School-site of actlvity located within its boundarias as a result the earlier civic protests and public c ~ n c e r n of tha existence of Naval Air 'Station (NAS) about noise and safety. Also land to the west of Oceana. the Navy's largest master jet base.

the present runway is not possessed by the air- Because of a possible new gereral aviation air- port owners and rhere night be some difficl~lty port and the existence ! a rliilitary airport, an in buying additional land for the purpose of opportunity was provided !J study the needs of bullding a second ~unway groups with p ~ t e n t i a ! ! ~ conflicting uses of the A final possibility would be the purchase of area's air space.

farm land well to the north of Williamsburg and (2) Preliminary VATS Plan Recommenda- building a new airport there. This might result tions. The Preliminary Draft of the Plan for The in an advsrse environmental impact on the Virginia Air Transportation System 67 recom- area. In any event, the question of site selection mended the development of two airports ir, IS not an immed~ate one, since the Peninsula Virginia Beach, one in the northern section Airport Commission in its monthly meeting of (Fort Story) and one in the southern sectia~ July 17. 1975 returned Phase I of the Master (New Creeds), as shown in Figure 4-11. Ap- Plan to the consultants for further work.66 parently, state level aviation planners see a re- The future of air transportation on the auirement for additional aviation facilities to serve tne citizens of Virginia Beach.

** "Satell~te Alrport Dratt IS Rrlected. " Newport News Dally ( 3 ) C o m m u n i t y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Press, July 18 1975 Oemographically, the city's population stands .' Commonwealth of Vlrgln~a. Chvls~on of Aeronautics. DIVI- about 220,000 and has been increasing at a soon ot State Plannlng and Community Affalra. Preliminary Drah ol the Plan lor the V~rgrn~e Air TransporlsNon System. Decembor 1974 very rapid rate, whlch will probably lead it to be

C H E S A P E A K E

NORTH CAROLINA

CITY OF VIRGINIA BEACH Fla URE 4-1 1 pared by the city's Department of Economic Virginia's largest city in the very near future. In Development, indicates that most of the resi- socicr-economic terms, the city has a predomi- dents of the city are employed in either profes- nantly middle-to-upper class population.

sional/technical industries or in manage- Geographically, the city has a land aiea of 259 square miles.B8 Thus. by many of the usual in- mentladministrative positions. Few employees are class~fied as laborers, ard non-manufactur- dicators, the clty is expected to be able to generate and support a high level of general ing sectors of the city's economy prov~de the aviation activity. largest source of employment, particularly in the-service and retail trade areas. The city's ma- (4) Related Planning. Virginia Beach jor industries are Guille Steel (steel joists).

already has an abandoned city airport which, Nepatrix (fabric dying), Snark Boat Products, when cowsidered with past airport site planning J.C. Penney (regional distribution center), studies, ma& ii apparent that dxision-makers Eastern Electric Wire and Cable Company (na- within the city have attempted to deal with the tioral distribution center), Cooper Bearing problem of existing and potential general avia- Cornpany (split roller bearings), and Stihl, Inc.

tion airport sites.

(chain saws). A large number of the city's resi- Community Characteristics dents are service personnel and civilians Virginia Beach, which calls itself the employed by the military.

world's largest resort city, is located 41 the The city is served by a variety of transporta- southeastern corner of Virginia and is part of tion facilities: 1-64 connects with both 1-95 and the Ncrfolk-Portsmouth-Chesapeake SMSA. It 1-85. The Penn Central Transportation Com- is 90 miles southeast of Richmond and 200 pany, the Southern Railway System, and 50 miles south of Washington. D.C. It is a city of truck lines, including common and contract 259 square miles bordering 51 square miles of carriers in the SMSA, serve the city. The water- water and is located at av elevation of six feet way serving the city is the Port of Hampton above s e ~ Virginia Beach was iricorpor- Roads wnich is 25 square miles in size, handles ated as a town in 1906 and in 1952 it tscame a about 70 million tons of cargo. and has chan- city. In 1963. tho city merged with Princess nels up to 45 feet deep. The nearest airport is Anne County and was greatly enlarged.

Norfolk Regional which has air carrier service The total population of Virgivia Beach has provided by Allegheny. National. Piedmont, been growing rapidly. It has grown from a and United Airlines.

population of 42,000 in 1950 to 172.000 in 1970.

TPe city currently has three m6;or in- The 1974 city population stood at 219,285, ac- dustrial park properties available-Oceana cording to studies conducted by ths Virginia West (1.000 acres). Little Creek (26 acres). and Beach Planning Department. The population of the Airport Industrial Park (202 acres) dlrectly the city IS distri~uted unevenly throughout its east of Norfolk Regional Airport. Other in- seven boroughs and ranges in size from 70,639 dustrial park sites are being planned.

in the Lynnhaven Borough to 871 in the Black- water Borodgh. The most rapid population History and Development g r ~ w t h is concentrated in the city's larger Virginla Beach's general aviation airport boroughs although population movement and development efforts began on April 16. 1963 development is also expected to increase in the when the city manager. at the request of City southern part of the city which is relatively un- Council. appointed a three-member committee populated and undeveloped.

to determine the feasibility of the city's using An anabjsis of the city's labor market, pre- the airport facilities at Fort Story for general aviation (see Figure 4-11 In September, 1963 '' These data are based on lnformatlon contained In a com- the city's request for joint use of the Fort Story munlty data publlcatlon prepared by the Vlrglnla Beach Department aircraft faz~ lities was endorsed by the Director of Economlc Development January 1975. and on a Development In- of the Virginiz Division of Aeronautics. At the formation Package pr~pared by the C ~ t y of Vlrglnla Beach Dcpart- ment of Plannlng on Aprll 24. 1975 same time. the Report of the Aviation Commis- '' lbrd sion to the Governor and the General Assembly ' O Internal memo from George Tlnnes. Assistant to the C ~ t y of Virglnla identified V~rginia Beach as one of Menager of Vlrglnla Beach to C ~ t y Manager Robert Scott enhtled.

the airport projects in Virginia in need of state Chronolog~cal report of theclty s general avtatlon alrport develop- ment efforts. Jaajuary 14 1972 The history of development dls- aid. On March 4, 1964 the Army denied the cussed In this sectlon IS based on the memo rlted above and on In- city's request for joint use of the Fort S!ory tervlews conducted by the research team ~ ~ t h Mr Tlnnes AII ruota- aircraft facilities due to certain restrictive areas tlons also appear as quotations In the Mr Tlnnes memo Hereafter.

referred to as the Tlnnes memo in the flight pattern at Fort Story." Two months lbrd later the city's need for a general avlation alr- pcrt was again endorsed by the Director of the airports. At about the same time first community Vlrginia Division of Aeronautics. On October 9, opposition to airport development emerged in a resolution transmitted to the City Council by the 1967 the City Council appointed an Airport Board of Directors of the North Virginia Beach Study Committee which once again led to a re- quest by the city manager to establish a general Improvement League which requested the aviation facilitiy at the Fort Story site. The Army council to "resist all efforts to place an airport denied this request and also a later request for at Fort Story. State Park, or North Virginia Bea~h."'~ reconsideration made by Congresjman Thomas N. Downing on Dscember 18, 1967."

In January, 1969, the realty ccimpany o w e In 1968 several significant events affecting again renewed its efforts to obtain space for a the developmen: of general aviation in Virginia public use airport in the vicinity of Oceana and Beach occurred. The city was listed In the Na- Fentress. -he Virginia Divis~on of Aeronautics tional Airport System Plan. The airport study therl sent a letter to tn" FAA requesting that the committee presented reports to the City Coun- company be required to galn approval from the cil on the economic benefits that occur to com- City of Virginia Beach. In A?ril. 1969 the com- munities as a result of general avistion and on ;spy withdrew its request for all aviation facility the Army's objections to the city's requests to because ;t had not been able to obtain the use the Fort Story site." The Airport Study necessary zoning and use permit from the city.

Committee reached the following conclusions This was because the city was considering the about the city's general zviation needs:74 establisl,,nent of a public use airport and might be pre-errpred by Virginia Beach Aviation (1) Thht the immediate need of the city witn Sales Liml~ed.'~ respect to an airport exists, primarily for tour- ism. In this conjunction such an ~ ' r p o f i would The city then retained the firm of Dewberry, only be of value ~f located in, or adjacent to the Nealon and Davis for an airport planning study.

Beach Borough. Considering the air space re- Subsequent to its initiai planning study, the firm quirements for Oceana Naval Air Station, the conducted a Site Evaluation and Selection only area In or adjacent to the Beach Borough Study which \ . : a s submitted to the city manager would lie in the vicinity of Seashore State Park.

on July 9, lsT9. In conducting this study the (2) It is proposed that prior to the develop- consultanis looked at s! variety of factors in- ment of urban housing in the southern portion cludirg: size and type of airport required.

of our city, that acquisition of land be un- meteorological analysis, accessibility, com- dertaken, s~lch to be sufficient for the location patible land use, engineering feasibility, con- of an airpor, to be developed in conjunction struction costs, and real estate costs." In with industrial use.

March, 1970 the consultants received a letter The lndustr~al Development Authroity from the FAA rejecting the proposed airport site receil~ed a presentation made by the president locations at Fort Story. Pungo, and Woods Cor- ner for "airspace utilization" reasons. The FAA of a realty company on its proposed plans for an indicated that it would continue io assist the airport and industrial park in the southern part of the city between NAS Oceana and Auxiliary city in locating a suitable site for the proposed Virginia Beach airport.78 Land~ng F~eld (ALF) Fentress. This request was derlied by the FAA because of its proximity to In May, 1971 the City Manager r w ~ e s t e d operations occurring at both of these military FAA approval for an airport located at the Back Bay site "inasmuch as the project conforms to the guidance furnished by your office in the '' lbrd course of site s e l e c t i ~ n . " ~ ~ In June the city's '' Ibrd Airport Study Committee received a letter from

'. Dewberry. Nealon and Davls. Arrpon Srre Evaluatron and

Selection. Fa~rfax. Vlrgln~a 1970 Dewberry, Nealon and Davis repoqing that the '' Tlnnes memo Navy has indicated that it was its opinion that '* lbrd serious aircraft opers:ional safety problems would arise in the proposed site area. This, " Dewberry e l a1 '0 Lener from the FAA to Dewberry Nealon and Davls. dated however, is contrary to their position of May, k arch 31. 1970 1969.80 The Navy ~ndicated at that time that .* Letter from C~ty Manager Robert Scon to t h ~ FAA. dated "there would be a possibility of rerouting their May 24. 1971 southern operations to accommodate a general Letter from Dewberry. Nealor m d Davls. to Mr James aviation airport in the general vicinity of the Sadler. chalrman of the V~rglnla Beach Alrport Study Commrttee.

dated June 25. 1971 Back Eay site.81 The FAA responded to the @ ' Tlnnes memo Navy's objection by indicating that its regional YOU ARE NUMBER TWO FOR LANOlWO office would "restudy the entire Navy domi- can best live with, especially Oceana, since it would not unduly interfere with air traffic," and nance of airspace in the Virginia Beach area and reaffirm the urgent requirement to place a that "we should feel the need of an aiport to general aviation airport on the west side of the serve our city, and in the effort to establish one ~ e n ~ n s u l a . " ~ ~ The citv then attem~ted to obtain we do not want to leave any stone ~nturned."'~ ihe Navy's permiss~bn for joint'use of NAS- At this point, the city lost interest in Fort Oceana. This request was denied.

Story. The following reasons were given by city On November 4, 1971, the City Manager off lcials: (1) difficulties expected in obtaining received a letter from the FAA ini.icating that A-y approval for the use of Fort Story location; "inasmuch as the (Back Bay) site had been (2) meteorological problems associated with selected based upon a 'search area' recom- the site; and. (3) a changing view of the city mended by the Air Traffic People, we returned toward the Fort Story location because the city the airspace finding for further review to our was now viewing the area as a possible recrea- regional office. The region suggested that the tional site and felt that the needs of general Fort Story area, previously rejected, appeared aviation might be incompatible with :be needs to possess the best potential for the general of re~reati3n.~' aviatic,i airport from an airspace utilization In late 1973 the city began to a~tively pur- viewpoint. "83 At a December meeting, during sue the Creeds Airport location as the "best" vrhich the city solicited the Navy's assistance in site. On November 2. the city requested a "Pri- locating a general aviation airport site within vate classification for Creeds indicating no the city, the NAS Oceana Base Commander aircraft operations at present and none antici- suggested that the city use the Fort Story site ~ a t e d . ' ' ~ ~ After a series of meetings with repre- for a joint civilian/military air facility. At a sentatives of NAS Oceana. who still objected to December 9. 1971, FAA airspace meeting with this site, the city filed a second form 7480-1 wittt tha City of Virginia Beach, action was the FAA and now requested a "Private postponed indefinitely at the city's request due Restricted Use Only" classification for the to the Navy's alrspace objections.

Creeds Airport. In June the city was notified On February 14. 1973 the city contacted that the FAA was conducting an aeronautical Ccngressrnar, William Whitehurst to meet with study of the reactivation of Creeds Airport.

him on tne city's airport difficulties in a project with e h~story which was "long and fraught with On October 16, 1974 the FAA conducted a di~appointrnent."~~ The clty's director of eco- hear~ng on the Creeds Airfield situation to ena- nomic development, emphasized that after ble the proponents and the opponents of the many mwtings "we are no further toward a proposed reactivation to voice their opinion.89 positive decision than we were when the Air- The proponents included two members of the port Study Committee was established five or State Corporation Commissicn anc! a represen- six years ago."85 In response to Congressman tative from the Virginia Beach Department of Whitehurst's interest he then indicated that Economic Development. Opposition to the "the Fort Story location is one that weryone reactivation was voiced by several Navy offi- cials, the President of the Back Bay Civir: " Letter from Dewberry. e l a!. oo crl.

League, and :he Manager of the Back Bay Na- " Letter frrm the FAA to C 1 : y Manager Robert Scon. dated tional Wildlife Refuge.

November 4 1971 "Letter from A James Oe e;illos Dlrector of :he Vlrgonoa The Navy's and the Civic League's main Beach W a n m e n t of Economtc Development to Congressman G objection was based on the danger of midair Wolloam Whttehunt. dated February 14. 1973 collisions and of limited approach and depar- *' Ibld ture avenues over the southern part of Virginia Lener from A James De Bellts to Congressm8n G Wtlloan Beach. A representative from the State Division Wh~tehurst dated May 8. 1973 of Aeronautics countered this argument by say- *' lntervtews cnnducted wtth Mr Harold Gallup-lndustrtal Development Coordtnator. Mr Jerry Broadway-AdmtnostratIve ing that "the Navy does not own the airspace kde Ken Kn~ght-Comprehensve Planner, and Mr Lee Win-- over or around Creeds, and that anyone has the Covol Oefense Cooremator on July 16. 1975 right io fly in this airspace."" In addition, the The followtng ~nforrnatton IS based on an Internal memo lo Mr George L Hanbury. Asslstant C~ty Manager. daed July 8. 1974 state representative argued that "with proper "Internal mamo from Mr Jerry Broadway to Mr A J a m controls, high performance and low perfor- De Bellos reportong on the FAA Heanngs on the Creeds Pctovat~on.

mance aircraft use the same airspace every day dated October 16. 1974 at numerous airports throughout the country 'O lbrd without midair collision^.^' The meeting *' Internal memo from Mr Jerry Broadway to Mr K m Knoght.

resulted in a compromise in which the Navy in- Depanrnent or Cow Plannong. datad March 6. 1975 dicated that it would not object to the reactiva- were visited. The sites discussed and evaluated in the form of "consultants 1st choice, 2nd tion of Creeds as a heliport.

choice, etc." were: Back Bay (visited), Dawley More recently, comments have centered on Corners. Pleasant Ridge, Woods Corner, and the Preliminary Draft of The Virginia Air Creeds (visited).

Transportation System Plan. The plan was re- viewed by a representative of the Department In addition, the sites at Fort Story, Pungo of Economic Development who noted that: (1) airfield (abandoned), and NAS Oceana were the inclusion of the Creeds Airport in the State visited to aid in evaluating their applicability as Plan and the National Aiport Systems Plan general aviation airport sites. This enabled the researchers to gain a better understanding of "lends much support to our application which is presently before the FAA to activate the air- the enviro~imental conditions which had been port at Creeds;" (2) the reactivation of Creeds discussed with officials from the City of Virginia Airport might make that area an excellent loca- Beach. Woods Corner, Pleasant Ridge, and tion for an industrial park; (3) Creeds would Dawley Corners were not visited because these provide air access to the False Cape State Park locales were dropped early in the city's site recreational area.92 In addition he noted that the selection study and no present consideration Department of Economic Development had no was given to them by any of the people con- plans for an airport at the Fort Story location. tacted for this case study.

Similar views were contained in the city's com- Fentress is an auxiliary landing field used ments on the VATS plan transmitted to the Divi- by the United States Navy for simulated carrier sion of State Planning and Community affair^.^' landing practice for their high performance These comments indicated that the city sup- jets. Fentress, with an 8,000-foot single runway.

ports the Creeds Airfield and that the Virginia has approximately 80,000 to 100,000 operations Beach Planning Department had no plans to per year and acts as a reliever field for NAS develop the proposed Fort Story facility.

Oceana which has over 150,000 operations an- Therefore the city concluded "if not enough nually. The Virginia Beach Airport Site Evalua- federal funds are available for ADAP support of tion and Selection report did not consider general aviation facilities, it may be wise to Fentress in the plan. It was stated in the letter of concentrate federal funds in only one facility in transmittal with the report that "Fentress. . .is Virginia Beach."

not only in another jurisdiction, but is poorly The Assistant to the City Manager for situated from an access standp~int."~~ Human Resources. commented that the VATS Pungo Field, Back Bay, and Creeds extend plan in reality anticipates three airports serving south from NAS Oceana in that order and are Virginia Beach by 1990: Fort S!nr)e. a facility in approximately 6.8, 11.9 and 15.9 miles respec- the southern part of the city, 2nd Norfolk tively from the center of Oceana.

Regional. He recalled the story of the "Tortoise Major objections to these three sites came and the Hare" and suggested that "with per- from the Navy because of conflict with the severance the city will obtain general aviation traffic patterns at NAS Oceana. Over 50 percent facilities in the southeastern and the north- of the time, runways 5L and 59 at Oceana are eastern parts of the city by the ti:!.> 1990 rolls active while runways 23L and 23R are used around.'' In addition he indicated that the city about 35 percent of the time (see Figure 4-12 for could work most productively toward establish- a layout of NAS Oceana). Problems were dis- ing better access and utilization of the general cussed with Navy personnel who provided aviation facilities located at ihe Norfolk drawings showing their ground control ap- Regional Airp~rt.~' proach (GCA) pattern. Approach to the GCA Existing and Proposed Aviation Facilities pattern for runway 5R (which is the instrument Two of the five sites discussed in the Air- :anding runway) would normally pass directly port Site Evaluation and Selection report pre- over or very close to Creeds, which is also In Oceana's VFR approach zone. Back Bay would pared for the City of Virginia Beach in July 1970 be further from this Dattern but IS still within the *' 1b1d a ~ ~ r o a c h zone of runwavs 5L and 5R. Punan - - - .

. . - a - - - - - - - a-

"Letter from Mr Ken Kn~ghl Vlrglnla Beach Comprehen- ~ ~ ~ l d does not appear to be in the approach slve Planner to Mr Robert S De Maur~ Chvlslon of State Plmnlng and Cornrnunlrv Affairs Transoortat~on and Public Safetv Sect~on Zone of 5L and 5R, but its close pr0ximitY to dated March lo. 1975 NAS Oceana could present a VFR traffic p;ob- Letter lrom Mr George Tlnnes Assstavi to the City Man- lem, ager'rfuman Resources to Mr James P Sadler 'J~rgln~a Beach Air- port Commtttee. March 27 1975 Opening a general aviation airport in the .' Dewberry Nealon and Daws. ~p C I ~ Pungo-Back Bay-Creeds area presents another NORTH C A R O L I N A NAS OC EANA AIRSPACE UTILIZATION FIGURE 4-12 potential problem to NAS Oceana traffic. NAS limited, due to size, to aircraft with STOL Oceana has an established control zone and ca~abilities.

according to Federal Aviation Regulations, any Support aircraft flying in this airspace up to 3.000 feet It is difficult to talk in terms of proponents above the ground must be under the control of in the Virginia Beach case because the city has NAS Oceana. Above 3,000 feet, if the aircraft is not placed a great deal of emphasis on having VFR, there is no requirement to contact NAS its own general aviation facility. This is not to Ocrtana. High performance military aircraft will say that the city does not desire the services be under direct control while civil aircraft may provided by general aviation but indicates :hat or may not be, which presents a potential safety the city officials interviewed felt that the problem. An additional general aviation airport facilities at Norfolk Regional cculd be changed in the area would pose a potential safety prob- and upgraded to serve Virginia Beach's needs.

lem. It appears that the FAA should make a The city's source of support for access to detailed study of this problem. A possible solu- general aviation facilities seem to be interests tion would be the establishment of a Terminal related to economic development. But even Control Area to handle the expected high den- here, city officials indicated that an airport does sity traffic.

not in itself lead to economic development. One Creeds field is 15 miles from the City Hall city council member commented that he had complex of Virginia Beach City and it takes ap- seen no convincing evidence that would lead proximately 23 minutes to make the trip by auto- him to support the use of local tax funds for the mobile. This large distance is somewhat objec- development of a general aviation airport. He tionable, but anything closer would create seriously questioned the supposed benefits to greater air trafflc conflicts with NAS Oceana.

the community although at the same time he in- The remailling area to be considered is at Fort dicated that the users of general aviatlon Story. located in the extreme northeast corner should have the facilities available but not of the City of Virginia Beach. This land is pres- necessarily within the city limits of Virginia ently owned by the United States Army and Beach .96 from an air traffic point-,~f-view presents the The Creeds site is supported by the Depart- least amount of conflic! as long as one runway ment of Economic Development for three is oriented in a general east-west direction. A reasons. First, because of the expected popula- review of the documentation and talks with tion and industrial growth in the southern part Virginia Beach officials indicated that Fort Sto- of the city. Secor?:. the department believed ry personnsr, and possibly the residents of that an airport at Creeds would be used by cer- Virginia Beach in the Fort Story area, appear to tain technical and research and development be the only persons opposed to this location. It industries which it hopes will be located near is not clear why aviation-knowledgeable peo- the Oceana Naval Air Station. Third, Creeds ple have recommended the Fort Story location would receive some use once False Cape State since the runway length appears limlted. the Park is opened as a day facility with expected runway is oriented such that it is about 90° to use by approximately 25,000 visitors daily.g7 the prevailing wind (a runway into the prevaii- ing winds would conflict with Norfolk Municipal Additional support by city officials for the Airport and NAS Oceana), and the salt air and development of a general aviation facility in sand envircnment are very detrimental to Virglnia Beach is given by the city manager's aircraft. The Fort Story airport IS located at the offlce. The City Manager and ar assistant to the edge of the NAS Oceana control zone.

City Manager both see the need for additional Industrial development in the city. At the same The old runway at Fort Story wss approx- time, the former is also interested in locating a imately 3,500 feet in length and constructed of convention center in Virginia Beach. A general pierced steel plank (PSP). The runway has been aviation facility is a desired component of the abandoned for all practical purposes and would planned industrial and the convention cenier have to be reconstructed completely, although development. It should be noted. however, that sufficient room appears to exist to lengthen it.

the key problem will be in gaining access to a There 1 s another very small, hard surface lo- generc! aviation faclllty and not necessarily cated at Fort Story which appears to be a road t ~ ~ i i d i n g one within the clty limits in the Im- and doubles as a landing strip. This strip is mediate future.

' Intewtew conducted w ~ l h Mr George Callts. Counc~l- Additional internal support for general man--C~ty of Vlrglnla Beach on July 22 1975 avlation IS found among the three memb~rs of '' lnterv~ews conducted wtlh members of the Vlrglnla Beach department ~f economtc development and c ~ t y planr11-g the city's Airport Committee, individuals ap- pointed by the City Manager at the request of aviation facilities in Vlrginia Beach since 1968 the City Council. Their major role has been to when the city was first listed in the National Air- conduct studies on the aviation needs of the port System Plan (NASP). Recognition of the city and to report to the appropriate city officials population center in the NASP adds impc2tus to on the city's aviation needs. They seem to be an airport program because it indicates that po- the only organized group currently supporting tentially federal funds are available to assist in general aviation developments in the city. the planning and development of an airport.

This recognition also indicates that federal offi- At the present, V~rginia Beach's second cials belleve that an airport is viable in that airport site at Fort Story seems to be supported particular arez, adding support to the propo- by very few, i f any, individuals within the city nents of an airport who would perceive a because of the generally held belief that the powerful ally in the form of the federal govern- best way to use the Fort Story land, if available, ment. With this implied support they may is for recreational purposes. Past support for become more vocal and active in their recom- the Fort Story site came primarily from the in- mendations for an airport.

dustrial development interests in the city A third source of external support is Con- An additional source of support for the gressman William Whitehurst, who has played development of general aviation facilities in a cooperative role in attempting to obtain land Virginia Beach could be aircraft owners resid- at the Fort Story site. Mr. Whitehurst has con- ing in the city. In 1970, FAA aircraft registra- tactet the Commanding Officer at the United t~ons for the city show 56 aircraft whose owners States Army Transportation Center at Fort have Virginia Beach a d d r e s s e ~ . ~ ~ Discussions Eustis regarding the use of that site. In addition with the city officials interviewed would leac Congressman Whitehurst has corresponded one to believe that this nilmber had increased with Virginia Beach's Director of the Depart- substantially as a result of the type of popula- ment of Economic Development regarding the tion growth the city has experienced. No evi- development of an aviation fac~lity near the dence was obtained to show that these aircraft Oceana Naval Air Station.99 owners have lobbied activelv in their own behalf Opposition Of at least equal importance in obtaining Opposition to the development of a gereral general aviation services in a given community aviation facility has come from two principal are external sources of support. In the case of sources: (1) certain local civic and environmen- Virginia Beach these include members of the tal interests and (2) the Navy The local in- State Corporation Commission, Divlsion of terests have expressed opposition to tne Fort Aeronautics; the Federal Aviat~on Admlnlstra- Story site because tiley would like it to be used tion which has included an aviation facility for for recreational purposes. Opposition to the Virginia Beach in its National Air System Plan; Creeds site was expressed by both the Presl- and. Congressman William Whitehurst whose dent of the Bask Bay Civic League who Nas district includes the City of Virginla Beach.

concerned with the danger of rnica~r collisions, The State Division of Aeronautics has en- and the Manager of the Back Bay National dorsed aircraft fac~lities in Virginia Beach since W~ldlife Refuge who was concerned about the 1963 when ~t supported the joint use proposal at environmental effects of the proposed develop- Fort Story. In 1969 it endorsed the city's Ad- ment. One could conclude without surprlse, vance Airport Planning Proposal. In 1971 the given the low level of aviation activity within the city received $5.000 in state funds as a reim- city, that local citizen group opposition is not bursement for airport planning in connection strong.

w ~ t h Virg~n~a Beach Municipai Airport. Most re- Continuous opposition to the development cently the Commonwealth has supported the of an aviat~on facility at the Creeds slte has c ~ t y in hearings canducted by the FAA on the come from officials representing the Oceana proposed reactivation of Creeds airfield.

Naval Air Stat~on. Since the reasons for thls op- The FAA has supported the development of position k ~ v e been discussed in the aviat~on environment section of this case study they need not be repeated here. Results of inter- '' Dewberry e l a / . p 7 views conducted with the Command~ng Officer *' Le:.er lrom A James De Bellls D~rector V ~ r g ~ n ~ a Beach and the air traff~c control officer of NAS Oceana Department of Econom~c Development to Congressman W ~ l l ~ a m Wh~tehurst dated May 8 1973 Letter from Congressman Wh~tehlrrst clearly indicated the Navy's concern about the to James De B e l l ~ s dated May 30 1973 Letter from .lames De Bellls air space available to Oceana and the to Major General Jack Fuson Commandl-; Off~cer U S Army difflcult~es Inherent in mixing hlgh performance Transportallon Center Fort Eust~s. V ~ r g l n ~ a . dated June 6. 1973 military aircraft with low performance general Chesapeake aviation aircraft.'OO Introduction In summary, except for the opposition ex- The proposed Chesapeake Mlinicipal Air- pressed by Navy officials, few individuals op.

port represents an attempt to develop a new pose the development of an aviation facility in general aviation airport with the eventual pur- Virginia Beach. Nevertheless, one should pose of becoming an air freight center for in- remember that opposition to policy decisions dustrial development. With 2,000 acres of does not generally develop at the early plan- developable land, it is hoped that light indus- ning stage, a present characteristic of the tries will locate in the immediate area. The air- Virginia Beach situation.

port, in planning for eight years, has been ap- proved for development by federal, state, and Future Developments local officials. Construction is scheduled to The City of Virginia Beach appears to have begin in the fall of 1975. Coincidentally, the long range plans which include aviation re- VATS Plan projects the need for a general quirements. One of the problems the city has utility airport for this region.

encountered is the slow response of the Federal Aviation Administration. An initial ap- The proposed new airport has surmounted plication to open Creeds Field for the city's pri- the initial problems associatea with a rew air- vate use was submitted to the FAA in 1973. The port development program, and for this reason most recent application is dated May 20. 1974.

was selected for study, even though the project As of July 16, 1975, the FAA has not given the is noncontroversial in almost every respect.

city a response.

The city's emphasis has been, and will City Characteristics continue to be, placed upon the reactivation of Chesapeake is a large, sprawling city, lo- Creeds airfield. The associated costs of equip- cated in the Tidewater region of southeastern ment, maintenance, and insurance for the Virginia. It is bounded by Suffolk County on the development of a "Private Restricted Use On!y" west. the cities of Portsmouth and Norfolk on facility would be relatively small.101 the north, the City of Virginia Beach on the east, and the State of North Carolina on the south.

Another vision of the future airpqrt needs of Having incorporated in the mid-1960's, the City of Virginia Beach is held by the Chesapeake is now the state's largest city with General Manager of Piedmont Aviation at Nor- an area of 361 square miles. Over two-thirds of folk Regional Airport, who is also a member of the city is rural in character with most of its the Virginia Advisory Committee on Aviation.'02 population of 91,400 (1971) concentrated in the He believes that the proposed Fort Story airport northern section around the port areas. In 1972, should be upgraded from a General Utility there were more than 69,000 farm acres in pro- facility to a Basic Transport facility. He reasons duction covering over one-third of the city's that the demands of Virginia Beach's conven- area. The Great Dismal Swamp National tion business and the requirements of corpor- Wildlife Refuge is located in the southwest cor- ate pilots clearly show the need to develop an ner of the city.

upgraded facility.

The future of general aviation in Virginia In the past, major industries have located Beach is perhaps described best with these along the waterfront. These include the largest statements: Virginia Beach might succeed in employers: Lone Star Industries, Inc., and obtaining a general aviation facility, probably at Evans Products Company, both dealing in the the Creeds site, at some point in the future. Un- manufacture and sale of building and construc- 111 that occurs, the city will be able to gain ac- tion materials, and having about 670 and 625 cess to the services being provided to general employees, respectively. A study of the area in- aviation through the proposed expansion of the dicates, however, that industry is beginning to facilities at Norfolk Regional Airport.

locate around 1-64 outside the center city. The impetus to this pattern has been given by Volvo of America, Inc., which has begun constr~ction 'o"ntew~ew conducted w~th Capt Knutson. U S Navy.

Commanding Ofllcer. NAS Oceana and Commander J Morrison.

of a plant with an eventual employment of 3 500 U S Navy. k r Traffic Control Offlcer. NAS Oceana. on July 18.

people.

"' Internal memo from Jerry W Broadway. Department of The 1974 annual report of the Chesapeake Economlr Development to R Scott Tyler dated Apr~l 29. 1974 Industrial Development Authority reported an '*' Letter from T C Ferguson Member of Vl'glnla Adv~sory expectation of more than $165.4 million in new Comm~ss~on on Av~at~on, to the Dlrector ol the Vlrgln~a Dlvls~on of industry and 4,517 additional jobs. Of these 4eronautlcs. dated March 7. 1975 totals, $1 50 million and 3,500 employees are ex- there are several FBOs which provide air taxi ~ected to be from Vol~o.~O~ service. and aircraft and avionics maintenance.

employing a total of 15 full-time individuals!

Existing Aviation Facilities One of two fish-spotting companies in the Currently, there are three airports in the Peni~isula area has a based airplane on the City of Chesapeake (see Figure 4-13): (1) field. The airport apparently operates at a loss Chesapeake-Portsmouth, a privately owned even though the FBOs appear to be successful.

general aviation airport located eight miles The retired airport manager has indicated that southwest of the city center; (2) South Norfolk, this location is a perfect site for development as a privately owned general aviation facility lo- there is ample space for industry to develop in cated four miles south of the city center; and.

the area.

(3) Auxiliary Landing Field (ALF) Fentress, The South Norfolk Airport is presently con- owned and operated by the United States Navy gested although it has some capacity for ex- as a training proficiency field. A private airport.

pansion. It is qear the major highway intersec- Suffolk, is in near proximity. Several other ex- tion of 1-64 2nd Virginia Route 168, and op- isting and proposed airports within a 50-mile posite the new Volvo plant. There are a number radius of the new airport site, including Virginia of residences in the vicinity and the land seems Beach and Williamsburg-Jamestown, have well suited for airfields. The airport is a family been reviewed previously in this chapter.

operation with marginal facilities. The owners The major air carrier airport for the region are not interested in selling the land.

south of Hampton Roads is Norfolk Regional Airport, a primary, medium density ai rpocserv- History and Development ing general transport category aircraft. It has a of the Proposed Facility large general aviation facility which is presently Unofficial planning for a public airport was near capacity. In order for Norfolk Regional to begun in the mid-1960's by members of the expand, it must obtain land outside the present aviation community in search of better municipal bouqdaries of Norfolk. Airport plan- facilities. It was also hoped that the new facility ners for Norfol;< Regional and Virginia Beach would act as a reliever for Norfolk Regional officials are presently discussing expansion where general aviation activity must vie with plans for property directly east of the airport certlflcated air carrier traffic. Many owners of and located within the corporate boundary of private aircraft prefer being based at an un- Virginia Beach.

controlled field to avoid restrictions placed on them at a hub airport. Also, the cost of keep~ng Of the three private airports near the pro- a plane at a major airport is higher than that of posed site, Chesapeake-Portsmoutt, with 125 bas~ng it at a small general aviation facility.

based aircraft is by far the busiest and largest with 60,000 operations annually. It is readily ac- In 1968, official action was taken by city cessible by SIX-lane highway end rail (Norfolk council approval to establish a publicly oflned and Western) transportation, and covers an general aviation airrlort. As planning area of 1,200 acres. At present, although little progressed i t becan.e apparent that residential or commercial activity impinges on Chesapeake was in a position to attract add!- the site, several radio and television antennas tional industry and cargo operations. This was north of the alrport represent a potential considered in the overall airport plan, by pro- airspace hazard.

viding for an Industrial park and for runways which will be strong enough to handle cargo At Chesapeake-Portsmouth there are two operations. A local consulting flrm was hired to 3,500-foot asphalt runways, one of which is recommend possible sites and to prepare an being expanded to 4,500 feet. k third runway is airport layout plan, in order to satisfy the proposed and could be extended up to 7,500 minimum requirements for application for feet without difficulty. At present, the runways federal funds. The eligibility for such funds was are considered to be of marginal length and established, since the airport was Included in bearing capacity, and capable of handling oilly the National Airport System Plan.

the smallest jets. Dry wells and canals are used for drainage, in a way similar to that proposed The geographic locat~on of the proposed for the site of the Chesapeake Municipal Air- Chesapeake Municipal Ariport seems suitable.

port.

The area is a forest just opposlte the Dismal Swamp. It is owned by a wood products com- On the Chesapeake-Portsmouth Airport, pany and used as a tree farm. Trees in this area are 40 to 50 years old and are ready for harvest- '" Annual Report of Chesapeake lndustr~al Development Comrn~ss~o.r. January 1975 Ing. After the necessary clearlng takes place, the company will sell the land to Chesapeake. the runway to 4,600 feet by 'iK) feet and adding There are only a few residences to the north a full length taxiway. In addition, the runway will be able to handle aircraft weighing up to and none to the south. The land itself is wet, however, and both runway and building con- 30,000 pounds and will have both taxiway and struction might result in problems. Acoess to runway lights, a VASl approach system, and the site by railroad is non-existent and road ac- runway end identificatim lights (REIL).

cess is minimal. In its favor is the fact that the Stage Ill will involve making the airport other airports in the region are general aviation meet the general transport category by extend- facilities with short runways, not strong enough ing the runways to 7,500 feet by 150 feet and es- to accommodate larger cargo and business tablishing precision approach caapability.

airglanes.

support The proposed airport is located close to, The proposed airport has strong support but outside, the control zones of ALF Fentress, from those interested in general aviation plan- Norfolk Regional Airport, and NAS Norfolk ning and is included in the NASP and VATS (Chambers). It should thus have very little plans. The Chesapeake City Manager, City effect, if any, on aircraft operations at any of the Council, Airport Authority, and the Industrial other airports in the area. Initial phases of the Development Authority have all given their fuli airport's development do not include an instru- support to the airport development effort.

ment approach, but this is included in s u b s Besides the approval of ADAP funds for 75 per- quent phases.

cent of the total 51.2 million Stage I construc- After development plans for both siting and tion cos!s, a commitment of $200,000 has been layout were developed and submitted to the made by both the city and the state. The city in- necessary federal agencies, an Environmental tends to borrow money from general funds with Impact Statement was prepared and submitted.

a commitment to pay it back. Any other funds An attempt was made to determine if any of the needed will be generated by the Airport 28 endangered species would be affected by Authority through the issue of revenye bonds.

the establishment of the airport. This is under- There is no intent t9 levy a tax. Interviews at the sta~dable since the location is adjacent to the existing Chesapeake-Portsmouth airport indi- Dismal Swamp and the area is one which is cated a belief that existing businesses will pro- ecologically delicate. The Environmental Im- bably not be nurt by a new airport, but they do pact Statement has met federal approval.

perceive that a new airport in Virginia Beach After approximately seven years of work to would provide serious cornpet~tion.

obtain Federal funds for such a project, the City Opposition of Chesapeake was notified on May 1,1975 that According to the Environmental Impact it had to have all of its plans and specifications Statement, at least one public hearing was held prepared, and contractors selected, prior to on November 7, 1972 and announcement for June 10, 1975, if it expected to receive any of reviewing the final draft was made in early 1974.

the 1974-1975 ADAP funds. (ADAP expired on It is not known how many citizens ren,:cwed the July 1. 1975; at this writing its renewal is being final draft. The initial public hearing was con- considered by Congress.) Such short notice for ducted primarily '9 discuss the environmental response undoubtedly placed the City of effects of the airport project.

Chesapeake in a poor position for a detailed price negotiation with tentative contractors.

Opponents who spoke at this meeting con- The first of three stages for development of the sisted of an outdoorsman concerned about the Chesapeake Municipal Airport, however, has Dismal Swamp, a resident who lives close to now been approved for ADAP funding.

the new airport, and a member of the Virginia Beach School Board who opposed the time of It is intended that Stage I will consist of a the hearing rather than the building of the air- 3,600-foot by 60-foot runway with taxiway turn- port. Also at thls meeting, a petition, containing arounds and no terminal navigat~on aids. Run- 57 signatures, was submitted which "op- way strengths will be designed to support posed. . .the construction of an industrial park aircraft of up to 12,000 pounds with medium in- and a~rport in the Shillelagh RoadMlest Road tensity runway lights.

area [ bec~gse] such a facility would adversely Stage II will upgrade the airport from affect property values ancl introduce elements general utility to basic transport by extending incompatiblewith the peaceful and quiet enjoy- ment of the area.'04 "' Ftndl Draft Environmental lmpact Statement lo: Chesapeake IAunlc~pal Alrport. 1974 On contacting two of the petlt~oners, it was carrior modes with excellent com- tound that their attitude indicated a h~peless- ness concerning the ability of small numbers of mon carrier service between larger residents to achieve success in any dispute cities.

with the city. In addition, their major complaints (2) The role of air transportation and were directed toward jet traffic and not general aviation airports in com- necessarily small general aviation planes. The munity developmeqt is recognized other nearby communities of Norfolk, in the Virginia A r Transportation Portsmouth, and Virginia Beach are neutral.

System Plan which project^ ex- with no interest in funding the airport in panded general aviation service for Chesapeake. Several poople stated that they Virginia primarily through the ex- think Virginia Beach will not build an airport paqsion of existing tncilities and but if it did, the airport will have some effect on the adaitiori of 19 new facil~ties.

the level of general aviation activity in (3) psgional and loczl studies in Chesapeake.

inia have identified the com- Conclusions plex and difficult nature of the air- Compared with other communities which port planning process. The follow- are considering the expansion of their air ing factors appear to be essential transportation facilities, the prospect of putting considerations in this process: in a new airport in Chesapeake has been (a) Local and regional planners must greeted with relatively little community opposi- consider the comprehensive tion.

transportatiotl planning procsss As far as the selected site is concerned, as well as statewide aviatior there seems to be minimal opposition in the plans.

community, with the exception of a few farmers (b) Accurate input data are needed in living in the vicinity of the proposed site. The the planning process and at pres- location is fairly isolated and the planes will ent there is some problem in ac- make approaches over the Dismal Swamp quiring certain information, par- which is uninhabited by people.

ticularly at non-tower-controlled Furthermore, indirect suppoit for this air- airports.

port development is expcted to result from (c) Forecasting must be done aood labor relations in the area (Virginia is a realistically, with a consideration right-to-work state), climcte, general area of all factors impacting on avia- facilities and the port lucation in the com- tion.

munity. Also a number of industries have made (d) Naticrnl and State plans can oral commitments to the facility and several serve i s general guides from FBOs have also expressed interest. These which local communities can FBOs, however, would have to construct their develop final plans.

own facilities, since the city will only construct a small administration building on the si!e. ( e ) The execution of all plans is de- pendent upon their acceptance SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS by the c3mmunities involved.

The study of transportation and general (f) Inter- as well as intra-community aviation in Virginia is summarized as follows: forces pl&y a major role in the (1) Virginia has a comprehensive final outcome of any aviation system of highway, rail, bus, and air facility development.

AVIATION SERVICE

ANALYSIS :

A GUIDEBOOK

CHAPTER V

AVIATION SERVICE ANALYSIS:

A GUIDEBOOK

INTRODUCTION This guidebook is designed to assist local decision-makers-elected and appointed officials, and other interested individuals in a community-in the process of determining whether or not avia- tion seaices are required to fulfill the needs of the residents of their communities. The use of this guidebook clearly implies that: (1) local communities must make a choice about the level and kind of aviation services they want; (2) this choice must be made with the involvement of the public throughout the process; and, (3) the process of making the choice relating to obtaining access to aviation services l a y be terminated at many different stages of the choice process.

The gu~debook is organized in a flow chart pattern with an accompanying text at various stages of the flow chart. The users of the guidebook must be careful to follow through the steps in the flow chart in the sequence presented. An " X " after a topic number indicates that the particular sequence is completed. At times appropriate cross-references are made to previous positions in the flow chart.

These must also be used where they are indicated. Finally, it is best to think of this guidebook as an outline of the steps one must follow, and the items one must consider, in establishing access to avia- tion services for the residents of a local community.

THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS (1 1 Community Goals Consider: external influences internal influences community characteristics l nventory of Transportation Services--Consider the (2) modes of transportation available to the population center in terms of provider costs and user costs.

Figure 5-1 helps to determine the trade-offs availa- ble Setween the types of transportation and the distance traveled.

Automob~le--Consider types (interstate, arterial, pri- (3) mary, and secondary) and number of highways available. How far do your people usually travel? If the automobile meets your total transportation re- quirements, there is no need to continue the analysis.

Bus and Truck-What intercity bus services are (4) available? What is the trucking ability (number of tonshear) in your area? Co the bus and truck ser- vices meet the remzining needs of your population center? If yes, there is no need to continue the analysis.

Rail-What freight andior passenger services are (5) available? Do they serve the remaining transporta- tion needs of your population center? If yes, there is no need to continue the analysis.

(6) Vbater-What water transportation services are available? Do they serve the remaining transporta- tion needs of your population center? If yes, there is no need to continue the analysis.

TO TOPIC 7.

FROM ?OF B Y TOPIC 57.

( Aviation-What aviation services are available? See (7) Figure F-2 (Appendix F) for physical facility parameters that shou Id be considered. Do the avia- tion services meet the remaining needs of your population center? If they are adequate, there is no need to continue the analysis. If services are in- adequate, proceed to topic 8.

Consider the types of Aviation Services possible as (8) presented in topics 9. 58, and 68.

Transportation-Commercial transportation of peo- ple and/or cargo from point " A to "B", either in the public or private domain. Some of the con- siderations should be: executive transport, busi- ness trmel, personal travel, cargo including mail, newspapers, bank paper, and perishable goods.

(10) Commuter Airline--A noneertificated scheduled air carrier operating in accordance with FAR 135 and under the exemptions of PART 298 of the Civil Aerona~tics Board (CAB).

I

(11) Adequate Service Available?-At this stage in the

ill

determination, this question can be answered with a subjective "yes" or "no". Later answers will eliminate as much subjectivity as possible.

t

(1 2 )X (12) Service is Adequate-Subjective answer to question

in topic 57. No further consideration need be given to this type of Aviation Service. Consider the other types of aviation services. See topic 8.

t

(13) Service is Not Adequate-S~~bjective answer to question in topic 57.

1 (kToplc

) TO TOPICS W, 39, !iO AND 56.

TO TOPICS 58, AND 68.

FROM TOPIC 13.

(14) Isolation Index--Criteria developed by the CAB based on travel time to an air carrier facility and the average number of departures per day. If the population center qualifies as being isolated, that population center may qualify for subsidized air carrier service (certificatedor commuter) provided there is an average of at least 5 passengers utiliz- ing the service for each day of the week that the service is available. Figure 5-2 is the isolation in- dex chart.

(15) Determine the number of air carrier and/or commuter flights per day at closest airport with those facilities. Enter your number on horizontal line in Figure 5-2.

(16) Actual travel time in minutes to air carrier and/or commuter service. Enter your number on vertical line in Figure 5-2.

(17) Isolation Determination-Determine where horizon- tal and vertical projections from topics 15 and 16 intersect on Figure 5-2. Intersectionsto the left and above the line (shaded area) are considered to be isolated population centers.

(18) No-Chart shows that population center is not "iso- lated" and therefore ineligible for CAB subsidy.

(19) No Further Requirement-For air carrier or com- muter service.

(20) Fiscal Capability and Goals--The isolation index is an initial indicator only and should not be con- sidered a final decision. If a population center has the f~scal capability to obtain this service on its own, it may want ta proceed with air carrier or com- muter service planning.

( TO TOPIC 22.

TO TOPIC 21.

FROM TOPIC 20.

I FROM TOPIC 17.

(21) Yes-Chart shows that population center is isolated.

(22) Type of Service-Initial decision should be made un the type of service that would best meet the re- quirements of the population center.

(2UX

(23) Air Carrier-If this choice is made, additional plan- ning should be undertaken which is not shown in this guide (which deals with general aviation).

t

(24) Commuter-If this choice is made, further action should be taken as indicated in this flow diagram.

(25) Geographic Considerations--Are there terrain features that may or may not support the require- ment for commuter services? Can the terrain and soil base support an airport with orientation to local winds and anticipated aircraft weights? Are the potential airport sites accessible for ground and air transportation? Is the travel time to the po- tential sites reasonable? Is there a serviceable air- port located nearby?

(26) Industrial Base--The type of industry in an area in- fluences the amount and type of air transportation.

Primary industries (such as agriculture and min- ing) generate less air travel than service type in- dustries (such as insuranco, banking, and market- ing).

(27) Community Goals-How do commuter services relate to the developmental goals of your com- munity?

t TO TOPIC 30

TO TOPICS 28 AND 29.

FROM TOPICS 25, a, n, s, s, 37, a, a, m, ss, ss, eo, el, a, a, w, se, w, , , 70,71, AND 72.

I FROM TOPIC 24.

(28) Demographic--Is there a sufficient size population to justify commuter service? Is the population den- sity sufficient to justify commuter services? What is the age distribution of the population center?

How mobile is the population-both short and long term?

(29) Transportation Objectives-Has the population center considered comfort, safety, minimum loss to the users, maintenance of environmental quality, general public satisfaction, and monetary costs for the transportation objective?

( 30) (30) Airport Facilities-Perform an inventory of existing

airport facilities and forecast anticipated use of the facility. Methods for predicting based aircraft, an- nual operations, travel demand, and cargo demand are shown in Tables V-I, V-ll, V-Ill, and V-IV.

TO TOPIC 73.

FROM TOPIC 9.

(31) Air Taxi-A non-certificated, non-scheduled service operated in accordance with FAR 135 and under the exemption of PART 298 of the CAB.

(32) Adequate Air Service Available?-At this stage in the determination, this question can be answered with a subjective "yes" or "no." Later ar:swers viill eliminate as much subjectivity as possible.

(33) Service is Adequat-ubjective answer to question in topic 11. No further consideration needs to ha given to this type of aviation sewice. Consider the other types of aviation services. See topic 2.

(34) Service is Not Adequate--At the time of the inven- tory.

(35) Geographic CharacteristicsDoes the lacation of the population center (island, etc.)influence the need for air taxi service? Is there a geographic limitation that may prevent the establishment of an airport? Would another airport be closer than the proposed airport?

(36) Population Size-Are there enough pecole in the population center to support the needs of an air taxi service?

(37) Industrial Base-List the industries in your area and determine their dependence or lack of it on avia- tion.

(38) Community Goals-List the goals of the communitj and determine if an air taxi operation fits into the goal pattern.

TO TOPIC 30.

FROM TOPIC 9.

FROM TOPIC 51.

(39) Business and Corporate Aviation-That part of general aviation which uses aircraft in the pursuit of its own business and corporate function, but does not "hold out to the public."

(40)

(40) Adequate Service Available?-At this stage in the determination, this question can be amwered with a subjective "yes" or "no." Later answers will eliminate as much subjectivity as passible.

(41 ) Service is Adequate-- Subjective answer to the

(41) x

question in topic 40 or 51. No further consideration needs to be given to this type of aviation service.

(42) Service is Not Adequate--This service was not ade- quate at the time that an inventory of services was developed.

(43) Type of industry-List the industries in your area and determine their dependence or lack of it on avia- tion.

(44) Minirrg and Primary Industries--These industries have historically used few aircraft in their busi- ness. Typical industries in this category are raw material mining companies, and agriculture, other thsn spray applicati~n.

(45) IndustriaCThese industries usually occupy a posi- tion between the industries of topics 44 and 46 in the amount of dependence on aviation services.

Typical itidustries in this category are appliance manufacturers and automotive equipment manufacturers.

(46) Service-Traditionally, these businesses utilize bus- iness aircraft the most. Typical industries are sales firms, marketing firms, insurance companies, and I banking institutions.

TO TOPIC 47.

FROM TOPICS 44,45, AND 46.

(47) Needed Aviation Services--Based on the inventory of existing businesses, a determination should be made of what types of aviation services will be needed. What size and type aircraft are the com- panies using? How does this affect the airport facility? What services will be necessary at the air- port? (fuel, maintenance, tie-down, hangar, of- fices, flight personnel) (48) Transient Only-If the aviation services are for tran- sient aircraft only, then there will be fower facilities required and less revenue derived from the airport.

(49) Aircraft Primary Base--If business aircraft are based at the airport, there is a higher requirement for facilities and also a potentially highs. income from the airport.

TO TOPIC 30.

FROM TOPIC 9.

(50) Personal-The non-cc?rnmercial transportation of people ?nd/or cargo from point "A" to point "B" for non-business purposes.

(51) Adequate Service Available?-At this stage in the determination, this question can be answered with a subjective "yes" or "no." Later answers will eliminate as much subjectivity as possible.

(52) Service is Not Adequate-Personal use of an aircraft is not available for other than comn?ercial transportation.

(53) Aviation Support Facilities Required-Personal use of aircraft for transportation may require fuel, oil, tie-down, hangars, and maintenance.

(54) Transient Only-Fewer services listed in topic 53 are required and therefore less revenue will be derived.

(55) Aircraft Primary Base-Higher requirements for facilities and a potentially higher revenue for the airport.

(56) Air Carrier-A person or organization who under- takes to engage in air transportation and for the purposes of this guide is certificated by the CAB.

(57) Adequate Service Available?-At this stage in the determination, this question can be answered with a subjective "yes" or "no." Later answers will eliminate as much subjectivity as possible.

r TO TOPIC 41.

TO TOPIC 30.

I

TO TOPICS 12 AND 13.

FROM TOPIC 8.

I

3) (58) Services-Services provided in support of other pri-

mary community functions.

(59) Industrial Services-Services such as: aerial photo- graphy; advertising; agricultural management; utility patrols; construction; and flight training.

(60) Geographic Considerations--1s there a geographic uniqueness that is compatible with aviction? For example: large agriculturai area for spray applica- tions, fish spotting along coastal areas, logging with helicgpters in rough terrain. Is there a geographic limitction that may prevent the estab- lishment of an airport? For example: no available airspace that would pot co~flict with present avia- tion functions; terrain is too rough to establish an airport; available land does not align well with winds in the area.

(61) Industrial Base--Does your community have an in- dustrial base that will support aircraft services s:rch as: aerial photography, fishing, mining, agriculture, or large forestry operations.

(62) Population-Is there sufficient population to make these aircraft services economical?

(63) Types of Industry-Certzin types of industries rely more heavily on aviation than other types. List the industries in your area and determine their depen- dence or lack of it on aviation.

(64) Community Objectives-Does the community want development in those areas where aircraft services are norrnally used?

TO TOPIC 30.

TO TOPIC 65.

FROM 'OPIC 58.

b

(65) (65) Special Community Services--Services in the

police, fire, and medical emergency areas.

(66) Geographic Considerations--Is the terrain relatively inaccessible for rescue purposes vdith other than a helicopter? Is wildlife management required?

(67) Public Welfare Requirement+How can aircraft be used to improve the welfare of the public? Exam- ples: some types of traffic control, shark patrol, water safety patrols, fire fighting, ambulance ser- vice.

TO TOPIC 30.

FROM TOPIC 8.

(68) Recreational Flying-Non-revetiue flying that does not involve transportation (topic 9) or services (topic 58).

(69) Geographic Consideration%ls there a geographic limitation that may prevect the establishment of an airport? Would another airport be closer than the proposed airport?

(70) Population Size--Are there enough people in the population center to support the needs of recrea- tional flying?

(71) Average Income--Is the average income in the population center large enough to support recrea- tional aviation?

(72) Aircraft Owners--How many aircraft owners are there in the area who will be willing to base their aircraft at the airport? What type of aircraft do they have and how many hours does each -'-craft fly annually?

TO TOPIC 3 0 .

FROM TOPIC 30.

+

(73)

(73) Type of Sponsors-Determine the type 3f sponsor desired, based on the topics that follow.

t , (74) Private--A community may make an agreement with a private airport developer for the airport to be open for public use.

(75) Funding--The developer may borrow at a low in- terest rate, incorporate and sell stock, or use available funds. No community funds would be necessary.

(76) Common Law Liability-No community liability, the owner or operator of the airport would be responsi- ble.

(77) State Regulations--Some states license airports. If your staie does, the airport owner may need to ob- tain a license. State funds may be available for development.

(78) Federal Regulations-FAA and CAB should be checked for possible regulation of the aviation ser- vice(~).

(79) Community Control-The airport can be controlled thr~ugh zoning laws regulating its location and surrounding development. However, the airport may be closed at any time by its owners.

t

TO TOPICS 111 AND 112.

f

TO TOPICS 80,99, AND 105.

FROM TOPIC 73.

(80) Local Community-The community may have the means to sponsor an airport. Zoning laws are necessary. The power of eminent domain to ac- quire land is helpful.

(81 ) Direct Ownership-One or more communities may own and operate an airport as part of their regular government function.

(82) Funding--Financing is available through property taxes or a bond issue. The bond issue may have to be approved by a general referendum.

(83) Common Law Liability-The community is liable.

(84) State Regu l a t i o n e t a t e s may license airports.

State funds may be available for airport develop- ment. Most states approve applications for federal funding.

(85) Federal Regulations-FAA has regulations depend- ing on the type of airport. CAB controls certificated air carrier service. Community may request federal aid for developing master plan and constructing the airport.

(86) Community ControCCommunity ownership gives the locality the greatest degree of control possibie.

Revenues returned to the general fund may be hard to use for airport improvements.

TO TOPICS 111 AND 112.

TO TOPICS 87 AND 93.

FROM TOPIC 80.

+

(87) (87) Airport Commission or Authority-May own andlor

operate the airport. Members are usually ap- pointed from communities involved. Determine if a commission or authority already exists or if one is available to join. The state may have an enabling act which allows a community to set up such a body.

&( 88k- (88) Funding--The airport body may issue revenue

bonds, which are redeemed by income from the airport.

-( 8 9 )+ (89) Common Law Liability-The commission or

authority is liable. The community may be vicariously liable, depending on the degree of con- trol it exercises over the commission or authority.

490)-

(90) State Regulations-Possible licensing of airports, funding through state, and approval of federal fund requeFts.

4 9 1 1 -

(91 ) Federal RegulationsFAA has airport safety regula- tions, CAB controls certificated air carrier service.

The community may request aid for developing master plan and constructing an airport.

I

(92) Community Control-Depends upon the enabling act: the community may appoint officials to an in- dependent body, the state may appoint them, or they may be elected by the voters .>f the com- munity. Ths cor~imission or authority niay act as the champion of the airport.

TO TOPICS 111 AND 112.

FROM TOPIC 80.

(93) Port Authority-May own and/or operate all transportation facilities withir, member com- munities. Members are appointed from the com- munities involved. State enabling acts may allow formation of an authority by a community. If the authority is to be composed of two or more state?, an act of Congress is required. Determine if an authority already exists for the area.

(94) Funding--Authority issues revenue bonds which are redeemed by income from the systems in the authority.

(95) Common Law Liability-Authority is liable. Respon- sibility of members depends on their degree of control over the authority.

(96) State Regulations-If composed of states, the mern- bers may have the control. The states may license I airports, provide funding, or apprcve the request for federal funds.

(97) Federal Regulations--FAA has airport safety regula- tions. CAB controls certificated air carrier service.

The Port Authority may request aid for deve!oping the master plan and constructing the airport.

I (98) Community ControCProvides the best coordination of transportation facilities. As the number of com- munities increases, the control by an individual community decreases. Authority may be com- pletely independent, depending on the enabling act.

TO TOPICS 111 AND 112.

FROM TOPIC 73.

(99) S t a t e m e states own and operate all public air- ports wi?hin their state. Other states may share the authority io construct and operate airports with communities.

(100) Funding--Through state tax money. State can pro- bably raise matching funds for federal funding more easily than a community.

(101) Common Law Liability-The state is liable, not the community.

t ""'I

(102) State Regulatiovs-The community is not involved.

k(lm)A

(103) Federal Regulations--FAA has airport safety regu la- tions. CAB controls certificated air carrier service.

Federal funding available for master plans and construction.

(104) Community CuntroI-Solely through zoning around the airport.

TO TOPICS 111 AND 112.

FROM TOPICS 75,76,77,78,79,82,83,84,85,86,88,89,90,91,92,94,95,96,97, AND 98.

FROM TOPIC 73.

+

(105) (105) FederaCOnly occurs at two airports in the United

States at this time (Washington National Airport and Dulles Inter~ational Airport, both sewing the Washington, D.C. area).

(1 06) Funding-Approved by Congress.

(107) (107) Common Law Liability-United Stated Government.

(108) State Regulations-Not applicable.

( 108)

(109) Federal Regulation+Determined by Congress.

0 : : : : ; (110) Community Contro!-Solely through zcrrling around

(110)

airport.

C

(Ill) New Airport Facility Reqgired-No applicable (111)

facilities exist, or the current facilities car~not be modified to meet the air transportation require- ments.

(1 12) Improved Airport Facility Required-Airport facilities

(112)

are available but they must be improved to be used to meet the planned air transportation require- ments.

I; (113)

(113) Type of Facilities--The type of airport facility should be selected for the types of operations that are an- ticipated (defined in topics 114, 115, 116, and 117).

TO TOPICS 114,115,116, AND 117.

FROM TOPIC 113.

(114) Basic Utility-Airport accommodating 95% o: gmeral aviation propeller aircraft under 12,500 pounds (FAA AC 150/5300-4A, 11-68).

P1"'l

(115) General Utility-Airport accommodating substan- tially all general aviation propeller aircraft under 12,500 pounds. Airport should have at least 500 an- nual itinerant operations between 8,000 and 12,000 pounds (FAA AC 1 50/5300-4A, 11 -68).

(116) Basic Transport-Airport accommodating all general aviation aircraft up to 60,000 pounds gross weight. Should have at least 500 annual itinerant operations between 12,500 and 60,000 pounds (FAA AC 1 50/5300-4A, 11 -68).

L ( 1 1 7 ) (117)General Transport-Airport accommodating

transport category aircraft up to 175,000 pounds gross weight. Should have at least 10 itinerant departures per week (FAA AC 150/5300-4F\, 11-68).

(118) (118) Funding Support-The population center must

decide what type of funding Is =ailable, what type it prefers to use, and for what purposes the funding may be used.

(119) Local-Funding support must start at the local

(119)

population center level. The five choices listed in topics 119, 120, 121, 124, and 123 exist.

(120) Private Funding-Funds for the airport may be pro-

120)X

vided entirely from private sources. In this case the airport belongs to that private source and is not eligible for federal funds. In some states, it may receive limited support with state funds.

121)X (121) 10O0/0 Local Public Funds-Airport will be funded

wholly by the local population center. It may be eligible for state and federal funds for future development. Bonds, tax levies and donations may be used to fund the facility.

i

TO TOPICS 122,124, AND 125.

FROM TOPIC 119.

(122) 50% Local Funds--If only local and state funds are used, the local population center is usually ex- pected to fund 50% or more of the program.

(123) 50% State Fbnds--If only local and state funds are used, the state is usually expected to fund up to 50% of the program cost. Local population centar should determine what amount of assistawc the state is able to provide. Future action depends on the state regulations that relate to airport funding and development.

(124) 25% Local Funds-Unless a public agency's powers are limited by state law or state funds are not available, the local population center may elect to use only local and federal funds. In that case, the local share will be 25%.

(125) 12.5% Local Funds-If state and federal funds are anticipated, the local population center is usually expected to fund 12.5% of the program costs.

(126) Airport is Part of the National Airport System Plan- This is a requirement in order to obtain federal funds. If the proposed airport is not part of the NASP, local action should be initiated to place the airport in the NASP. Application for a planning grant is made on FAA Form 5100-101, Application for Federal Assistance (Nonconstruction Pro- grams), signed by an authorized local authority and transmitted to the appropriate FAA field office.

(See FAA advisory circular 15015900-1A.)

(127) State-If the state is involved in the funding, the local population center should check state re- quirements. The state's share of the funding is usually 12.5%.

TO TOPIC 128.

(128) 75% Federal Funds--The maximum subsidy that the local population center can expect from the Federal Government under ADAP. Funds may only be used for federally designated purposes.

(129) Planning Grant-ADAP Sec. 13 [84 Stat 2241 limits federal grants for planning to 2M of the planning cost. Inclusion of Environmental Impact Statement is optional.

(130) Public Agency Submits Project Application-Re-

quired by Sec. 16 [ 84 Stat 2261 . Inclusion of en-

virovmental impact statement is required. Environ- mental impact statement should include: (1.)Environmental Impact-noise, air quality, water quality, hydrology, wildlife, scenic assets, recreational assets.

(2) Unavoidable adverse effects.

(3) Alternatives to the action.

(4) Relationship between short-term uses and maintenance and enhancement of long-term pro- ductivity.

(5) Any irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources.

(See DOT P 5600.1, Airports and Their Environ- ment.)

(131) Develop Phase I Airport Requirements-This is the first step in the development of the airport master plan in accordance with FAA advisory circular 15015070-6. Topics to be included are: inventory; forecasts of aviation demand; demandlcapacity analysis; facility requirement determination; and, environmental study. In the evenironment study, the following impacts are to be considered: aircraft noise, land use, air pollution, water pollu- tion, hydrology, and ecology.

TO TOPICS 132 AND 133.

i'32) Public Hearing-It is not mandatory that a public hearing be held at this time, but experience has in- dicated that the more opportunity the public has to be informed, the less likely it is that the public will oppose the facility in its later stages of develop- ment. Federal regulations require that airport sponsors and planners should seek out and con- sider the views of interested parties, including those of federal, state, or local agencies, or the public at large. The preliminary environmental im- pact statement must be made available to the public at least 30 days before a public hearing. A transcript of the hearing must be prepared and a summary of it must accompany the envirofimental impact statement. (See FAA advisory circular 15015100-7A for further detai Is.)

(133) Submit the Phase I Plan to the State and Federal Government for Approval.

(134) Develop Phase II, Site Selection Plan-After ap- proval of Phase I, the Phase II plan should be pre- pared in accordance with FAA advisory circular 15015070-6. Topics to be included are: airspace re- quirements; environmental factors; community growth patterns; airport access; availability of utilities; land costs, site development costs; and, political considerations. Environmentai impact statements are required for all major federal airport development actions significantly affecting the quality of !he environment. "Significant" in the previous sentence is defined in DOT order 5610.1A, attachment 1, page 2. A negative declara- tion is required if there is no significant impact.

(135) Public Hearings--Required at this time by the FAA.

ADAP requires a public hearing some time after topic 45 and before federal approval is received.

TO TOPICS 136 AND 137.

FROM TOPlC 1%.

(136) Phase IV, Firrancia1 Plan-To bc prepared in coq- junction with topic 137. Topics to be included are: schedules of proposed development; estimates of development costs; economic feasibility; and, fi- nancing.

(137) Phase Ill, Airport Plan-To be prepared in conjunc- tion wit!^ topic 136, the Phase IV financial pkn.

Topics to be included in the Phase Ill plan are: Ar- port layout plan; land use plan; terminal area plans; and, airport access plans.

(138) Public Hearings---Should be conducted at this time unless they have been held already.

C

(1 3 ) (139) Submit the Phase Ill and Phase IV plans to the ap-

propriate state and federal government agencies for their approval.

(140) Determine Potential Availability of Federal Funds- Contact FAA officials after plan has been submit- ted.

,,:, (141) Government Funds Not Available--If federal funds are not available at the time of federal approval of the plan, the population center car: make one of the three choices in topics 142, 143, or 144.

(142) Stop all planning effort on the airport.

(143) Investigate Other Funding Methods-Return to topic 117 and select another possible funding source.

(144) Wait for Federal Funds-Hold all development until federal funds become available.

(145) (145) Government Funds Available.

TO TOPIC 146.

FROM TOPIC 145.

(146) Receive notice from the FAA to obtain firm financial data for justification of specific federal funds.

(147) Develop invitations to bid for submission to potential contractors.

(1 48) Site Procurement Bid.

(149) Contractor Bids.

(150) Receive quotes from all potential bid sources. Select the best bids and prepare financial data for sub- mission to FAA.

(151) Submit financial data to FP.A in the format requested.

(152) Receive notification from FAA and the state that funds are available and that the construction can praceed.

THE END.

ONE-WAY DISTANCE (MILES) TRANSPORTATION TRADEOFFS FIGURE 5-1 TABLE VS FORECASTING BASED AIRCRAFT Average Family Predicted hlcane Ba8d A i m 1 1 (in dollan) (Fm community d 10,000 residents*) *For other population levels: Number of based aircraft= initial predicted based aircraft Source: Based on data obtained from the Final Draft of the Virginia Air Transportation System Study and alsa from Chapter !I of this Report.

TABLE V-ll FOREGASTING AIRPORT OPERATIONS Per Capita Income Annual (in dollars) Aircraft Operations (tor community d 10,000 residents*) 5.200 6,200 7,300 9,400 9.500 10.600 11,700 12,900 14,000 *For other population levels: Annual Aircraft Opperations= initial annual aircraft operations ( ~ O ; ~ J ; ~ ) O Source: Based on data obtained from the Final Draft of the Virginia Air Transportation System Study and also from Chapter II of this Report.

TABLE V-Ill FORECASTING REVENUE PASSENGER MILES Per Capita ! . - Re venue (in dafrria) Passenger ?Siles/Capita/Year .58 1.500 1.750 .72 2.000 .87 2.250 1.02 1.19 2.500 2 750 1.36 1.54 3,000 3,250 1.72 1.91 3.500 Annul Revenue

derived ) (Population)

Mi les/Capi ta~Year by Commuter *$1.163 is based on an average commuter fare per passenger mile. For fares oiher than $1.163, multiply the revenue passenger mile by 0172 U s the value obtained instead of the $1 .I63 in the equation above.

Source: Based 0'1 data obtained from the Final Draft of the Virginia Air Trsnsportation System Study and also from Chapter II of this Report.

TABLE V-lV FORECASTING REVENUE CARGO TON-MILES Per Capita Income Revenue (in dollars) Cargo Ton-Miles/Capita/Year .00147 1,500 1,750 .00175 2,000 .00204 2,250 .00233 ,00263 2,500 2,750 .00293 3,000 .00323 3.250 .00354 3.500 .00385

[ !!zie ) = ( 4 ) ( T O . - , , les/capita,ear Cargo ) (POPuktion)

from Cargo *$3.64 is based on an average air-cargo rate per ton-mile. For rdtes other than $3.64, multiply the per capita cargo ton-miles by 3.64 O M Use this new value instead of the $3.64 in the equation above.

(ZG)

Source: Based on data obtained from the Final Draft of the Virginia Virginia Air Transportation System Study and also from Chapter II of this Report.

APPENDIXES

APPENDIX A

FACULTY FELLOWS AND ASSOCIATES

NASA-ASEE ENGINEERING 8 - 8 DESIGN PROGRAM

SUMMER 1975

Sybil de Groot Proj.Ct Dlnctoc:

B.A.. M.A.. Ph.D . Ohio State Universtty

Michael Z. Sincoff

Area of Expertise Engineering Psychology B.A. M.A.. Universlty of Maryland Associate Professor of IndustrialTechnology Ph.D.. Purdue Universlty School of Technology Area of Expertise: InterpersonalK)rganizational Florida lnternatlonal University Communication mi am^. Florlda Associate Professor of Interpersonal Communicat~on and Director. Center for Communicat~on Stud~es School of Interpersonal Communication Robert M. Eastman Ohio Universlty A.B.. Antioch College Athens. Ohlo MS.. Ohlo State University Ph.D.. Pennsyhran~a state-~nlven~ty k.isIant Projacl Dinetor: Area of Exuertise: Ooeratfons Research/Systems Jarir S. Oajan~

B.Eng . American Universltyof Belrut

professor of lndustr~al Englneer~ng M.Sc .Stanford University Department of lndustr~al Englneerlng Ph.D.. Northwestern Universlty Area of Expertise: Transportat~on and Systems ~lannlng Associate Professor of Clvil Engineer:.~g and Pol~cy Sciences Joan Franklln Departmentof Clvil Englneenng and the lnst~tute of B.A., Reed College

M.A . Unlversitv of Oreaon

Pollcy Sclences and Publ~c Affairs

Duke Unlverslty Ph D . ~ a s h ~ n g t o n unikrslty

Durham. North Carolma Area of Exoert~se: Pol~t~cal Sc~ence Azslstant ~rotesscr of Polltical Sc~ence Partkipanh: Pollt~cal Sclence Department Kay L Anton~ew~cz Bowling Green State Unlvers~ty 0 A.. J D. (In progress). Unlverslty of V~rgln~a Bowl~ng Green. Ohlo Area of Expert~se Environmental Law Law Student Sander B Frledman Unlverslty of Virglnla

0.S.M E . Purdue Unlvenlty

Charlottesv~lle. Vlrglnla M S . Northern l l l ~ n o ~ s Unlvers~ty John J Bernardo

Ph D . Unlven~ty of Waterloo

B.S , Pennsykan~a State Unlvenlty Area of Expertise Automat~onlAutomat~c Control M.B A . Duquesne Unlvers~ty Systems. Manufacturing M S.. Ph.0. Purdue Un~vers~ty Assoc~ate Profesor of Engcneerlng Technology Area of Exprtrtlse Operat~ons Research Department of Eng~neerlng Technology Ass~stant Professorof Management M~aml Unlvers~ty Department of Management Oxford. Ohto Unlvenlty of Notre Dame Notre Dame, lndlana Gary W K~teley B S.. Unlvers~ty of Minnesota Bernard F Byrne

M S . Purdue Un~venlty

0 S.C E.. Carneg~e lnstltute of Technology Area of Expert~se: Av~at~on Managemtqt and M.S E.. Un~vers~ty of Cal~forn~a Operat~ons Pn 0. Unlverslty of Pennsylvanla Assoc~ate Professor of P.v~at~on Managementand Area of Expert~se. Transportat~on Englneerlng Dlrector. School of Avlatlon Assistant Professor of CIVII Englneerlng DEpartment of Aerospace Englneerlng Department of CIVII Englneer~ng Auburn Unlverslty West Vlrglnla Unlverslty Auburn. Alabama Morgantown. West Vlrg~n~a Alexis Cenko Clare F Kosbab 0 S.. Pennsykanla State Un~verslty

B S . M A . Ohlo State Unlvers~ty

M E . Cornell Unlvers~ty

Area of Expert~se Avlatlon Maintenance and

Ph D . West V ~ r g ~ n ~ a Un~vers~ty

Operat~ons Area of Expert~se, Aerodynamics Dlrector of Englneerlng Technologies Ass~stant Professor of Aeronautlcs Englneerlng Dlvlslon Department of Aeronautlcs Columbus Techncal Instltute Dowllng College Columbus. Ohlo Oakdale. New York John J. Uhran. Jr Timothy J. Kubiak B.E.E.. ManhattanCollege B.A.. Univesrity of Toledo M.S.E.E.. Ph.D., Purdue Unlversity M.A., Ph.D.. Mlchigan State University Area of Expertlse: Systems Studies/Commun~cation Area of Expertise: Community Resource Development Theory Assistant Professorof Geography Associate Professor of Electrlcal Englneerlng Department of Geography Department of Electrlcal Engineering Easiern Kentucky University Unlversity of Notre Dame Richmond. Kentucky Notre Dame, Indiana lrwln B. Levinstein Robert K. Wattson. Jr.

AB.. Unlversityof Chicago 0,s.. Oklahoma State University

M. \.. University of Pittsburgh

S.M.. Massachusetts lnstitute of Technology Ph.l).. '2-:.ersity of Chicago Area of Expertise: Low-speed ~erodynamics and Area of Expertise: Social Thought Preliminary Airplane Design Assistant Professorand Director, lnterdisclplinary Prafessor of Mechanicaland Aeronautical Studies Engineering and Associate Chairman Department of lnterdlscipllnary Studies Departvent of Mechamal and Aeronautical Old Domlnlon University Engineering Norfolk. Virglnia Trl-State College Henry L. tivas Angola, lndiana B.S.. Hampton lnstitute Perry 8. W~gley M.S.. Pennsylvania State University B.S.. B~rrningham-Southem College Area of ExGrtise: Architectural Engineering M.S., Ph.D., Virglnia Polytechnic lnstltute and State Associate Professor of Architecture and Engineering University Studies in Englneenng Area of Expertise: Geology Hampton lnstitute Associate Professor of Geology Hampton. Virglnla Department of Geology Charles L. Menges Eastern Kentucky Universlty B.A.. College of Willlam and 4ary Richmond. Kentucky J.D. (In progress). University of Virglnla Area of Ex~ertlse: Environmer ,a1 Law Law Student Unlversity of Vlrglnla Illustrator: Charlottesville. Vlrglnla R. J. Rrvlndranath B.E.. Bangalore Unlverslty Morrls H. Mericle M.S (in progress). Old Domlnion Univers~ty B.S., MS.. Ph.D.. lowa State Unlvsnity Mechanical Engineering Area ~f Expertise: Systems and Ccitrol Associate Professor of Electnca. Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering lowa State Unlverslty Secrotarirl Staff: Ames, lowa Deborah F. Moore B.S.. M B.A. (In progress).Old Domln~on Unlverslty Wolfgang Pindur Busmess Admlnlstratlon

B.A . Ohlo State Unlverslty

M.A.. Ph.D.. Wayne State Unlverslty Sandy E. Sealey Area of Expertlse: Urban Policies and Adminlstratlon B S. (In progress). Old Dornlnlon Unlverslty Associate Professor of Urban Studies 2nd Public Bus\ness Education Adminlstratlon lnstitute of Urban Studies and Publlc Admlnlstratlon Llnda M Sh~fflette Old Domln~on Universlty B.S.. M.Bus.Ed (In progress),Old Domlnlon Unlverslty Norfolk. Vlrglnla Business Education Robert L. scon

A.B . Union College

L.L.B.. J.D.. St Johns Unlverslty typist.: Area of Expertlse: Air Transportat~on/Av~at~on Law and Reba Hudspeth Regulation Pembroke Hlgh School. Class of 1975 Adjunct Professor of Alr Transportation Mary Sandy Department of Policy. Marketing and Environment B.A., Radford College (Engllsh and Spanish) School of Buslness and Organlzatlon Science Florida lnternatlonal Unlvenity M.P A (In progress).George Washington Unlverslty Publ~c Admlnlstratlon Mlaml. Florlda

APPENDIX B

QUEST LECTURERS

SpeakerIAff iliationrt'opic

Date

Mr Joseph Stickle June 2 Assistant Chlef, Flight Research Divis~on NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrglnia 23665 "Current Research in General Aviatlon" June 3 Mr Stanley J. Green Vice-President and General Counsel General Aviatlon Manufacturers Association 1025 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.

Washington. D.C., 20036 "Overview of General Aviatlon" Mr. Willlam J. Wood Assistant to the President; General Avlat~on Manufacturers Assoc~atlon 1025 Connecticut Avenue. N W.

Washlngton, D.C , 20036 "Ovewlew of General Av~atlon" Mr James H Zray. Chlef June 9 Envlr-~nrnental and Community Affairs State Corporntlon Cornmiss~on Divlslon of Heronautlcs Rlchmond. Vtrglnla 23231 "Vlrglnla Alr Transportatlon System" Mr Robert E. Nozlglla. Chief Plannlng and Programs State Corporat\on Commss~on Divls~on of Aeronautics Rlchmond. Vlrglnla 2??31 "Vlrginla 41r Transrfirtatlon System" Mr Robln K. Ransone Engineering and Sclence Systems Univesrlty of Vlrglnia Charlottesv~lle. Vlrglnla 22901 "Proposal for an A I I Transportatlon Model" Mr Norman J Crabtree. Deputy Director June 10 Dlvlsion of Avlat~on Ohlo Department of Transportatlon 2829 W. Granville Road Columbus. Ohlo 43085 "The General Aviat~on System In Ohlo" June 12 Dr LOUIS Mayo. Vlce-President Pollcy Studies and Speclal Projects The George WaShln~ton Unlverslty Washlngton. D.C.

"Avlat~on Pollcy Studies June 13 Mr F Lee Balley. Attorney c/o Wayne Sm~th Company 500 - 12th Street. S W.

Washlngton. D C 20024 "General Avlatlon" June 18 Mr Wllllarn J Snyder Chief Project Engineer. CIVII Hellcopters FRO Rotor Systems Section NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Virginia 23665 "Hellcopter Role In General Avlatlon ' June 19 Mr Walter J Robinson. Jr . Vlce-Pres~dent R Dlxon Speas Associates

1001 lnternatlonal Blvd . Sulte 1111

Atlanta. Georgia 30354 "Avlatlon System Plannlng" Mr Thomas S. Mlles. Presldent Nat~onal Alr Transportat~on Assoc~at~ons

1156 - 15th Street. N.W

Washlngton. D C. 20005 "Commuter A~rllnes" June 27 Mr P Kenneth Plerpont. Head Alrfol 1 Research Section NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrgln~a 23665 "Supercrltlcal and Low S e d A1rfo11 Research" July 7 Dr Jeremy Warford Publlc Utllltles Economist The World Bank Washlngton. D C.

"Subsldles to General Avlatlon" Mr James H. Gray. Ch~ef July 11 Environmental and Community Affalrs State Corporation Commlss~on Dlvls~on of Aeronautics Richmond. Vlrgln~a 23231 "The Vlrglnia Alr Transportat~on System Plan" July 15 Mr Fletcher Bartholornew Howard. Needles. Tammen 8 Bergendoff P 0 Box 186. 130 N Royal Street Alexandria. Vlrginla 22313 "Development of the Vlrglrva Alr Transportat~on System Plan" July 28 Joan E Caldwell Presldent. Northwest Greenwlch Assoclatlon 364 R!verv~lle Road Greenwlch. Connecticut 06830 "The Westchester. New York Alrport Controversy" July 29 Wllllam A Whittle FAA Alrp3:t Dlstrlct Offlce 900 S Washlngton Stree!

Falls Church Vlrglnla 22046 "FAA Comments on the Vlrg~nla Alr Transpor,at~on System Plan

APPENDIX C

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Appreciation is expre~sed to the following persons and organizations for providing material, in- formation, and assistan=. T h e r ~ individualsand organizations are not responsible for any inconsis- tencies or reportorial er-crs !hat might be found in this document.

N a m

Alvin F. Balaban Public Relations General Avlatton Divls~on Rockwell International Bethany, Oklahoma 73008 Nadlne Batkins General Reference 8 Catalog~ng NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrginla 23665 Reporter Daily P r e s s Newport News. Virglnla 23602 James Bland A~rpur~ Engineer State Corporatlon Comm~ss~on Dlvision of Aeronautlcs Richmond. Vlrglnla 23231 Sandra Blow Subject 8 Reference Blbllography NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrginla 23665 Letha Brelt Beech AlrcraH Corporatlon Wlchl!a. Kansas 67201 Jerry Broadway Adminlstratlve Alde Vlrglnla Beach. Vlrglnla 23451 Gordon M. Clark System Research Group The Ohlo State Unlverslty Columbus. Oh80 43215 Billy E Commander Chlef. Norfolk ATC Tower Norfolk Reglonal Alrporl Norfolk. Vlrglnia 23518 ilng Team a n e s City County P 0 . Box J C.

W~ll~amsburg. Vlrgln~a 23185 Norman J Crabtree Deputy Dlrector. Dlvlslon of Avlatlon Ohlo Department of Transportatlon Columbus. Ohlo 43085 Joseph R. Crottl Asslsta~ Dlrector. Avlatlon Plannlng 8 Research Department of Transportatlon Dlvlslon of Aeronautlcs Sacramento. Cal~fornla 95822 General Reterence 8 Cataloging NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrglnla 23665 A. James DeBellls Dlrector. Department of Economlc Development Vlrglnla Beach. Vlrg~nla 23451 Joseph B. Emerson Fl~ght Service Office Fllght Research Dlvlslor NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrglnla 236% Lee Eskln CIVII Defense Coordinator Vlrglnla Beach Vlrglnla 23451 Raymond Fassell Assistant Dlrector lowa State Unlverslty Press S State Avenue Ames. lowa 50010 Thomas Ferguson P~edmont Av~atron. Inc Norfolk Reglonal Airport Norfolk. Vlrglnla 23518 Coordinator, lndustr~al Development Harold Gallup Vlrginia Beach, Virginla 23451 Chief. Environmental and Community Affa~rs James H. Gray State Corporntlon Commission Divis~on of Aeronautlcs Rlchmond, Vlrginia 23231 Vice-president and General Counsel Stanley J. Green General Aviation Manufacturers Association Washlngton. D.C. 20036 General Reference 8 Sataloglng, Section Head Jane Hess NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrglnla 23665 Plper Alrcraft Corporat~on Carl Holland Lock Haven, Pennsylvania 17745 Manager. Alr Transport Operations Rlchard I. Hornbeck General Electric Company Westchester County Alrport Hangar E Whlte Plains. New York 10604 Will~amsburg Jame~tdwn Alrport Tom Johnson 100 Marclay Road Wlll~amsburg. Vlrginla 23185 Comprehensive Planner Ken Knlght Virglnia Beach. Vlrglnla 23451 Commanding Off lcer Capt. Knutson NAS Oceana Vlrglnla Beach. Vlrglnla 23460 Chief. Subsonic-Transon~c Aerodynamlcs Dlvls~on Rlchard E. Kuhn NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrglnla 23W1 Patrlck Henry lnternatlonal Alrport IN Lenchner Newport News. V~rgtnla 23602 W~ll~amsburg-Jarnestown Alrport Carl MacConnell 100 Marclay Road Wl'llamsburg. Virginla 23185 Manager. Norfolk Reglonal Airport Charles Preston Mangum. Jr.

Norfolk. Vlrglnla 23518 Executive Dlrector Eugene Marlln Pen~nsula Atrr ort Comm~sston Patrlck Henry lnternatlonal Alrport Newport News. Vlrglnla 23602 Department of Psychology Peter Mlkulka Old Domlnlon Unlvers~ty Norfolk. Vlrglnla 23508 President. Natlonal Alr Transportation Assoc~at~ons Thomas 5. Mlles Washlngton. D.C 20025 ATC Offlcer Commander J. Morrlson NAS Oceana Virglnla Beach. Vlrg~nla 23460 Gulfstream Sales H Eugene Myers Grumman Amerlcan Avlatlon Corporat~on P 0 Box 2206 Savannah. Georg~a 31402 State Corporatlot~ Comm~ss~on Mr Nonnelly Rlchmond. Vlrglnla Chlef. Plannlng and Programs Robert E. Nozlglla State Corporat~on Comm~ss~on Dlvcslon of Aeronautlcs Rlchmond. Vlrglnla 23231 Alrfoll Research Sectlon P Ken Pler~ont Subson~c-Transonic Aerodynamlcs Dlvlslon NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrglnla 23665 Betty Pope General References 8 Cataloging NASA-Langley Research Center Halnpton, V i r g ~ n ~ a 23665 Magg~ Pritchard Advertlslng Cessna Alrcraft Company Wlch~ta. Kansas 67201 Public Relat~ons Department Gates Learjet M~dconl~nent Airport P 0 . Box 1280 Wlchlta, Kansas 67201 Sgt John Rasner Fort Eust~s. Virginla 23604 Br~an T. Ratchford Department of Operat~ons Analysls SUNY-Buffalo Buffalo. New York 14214 W ~ l l ~ a m Ravenscroft Un~ted Feature Syndicate. Inc.

220 E. 42nd Street New York. New York 10017 Mr. Richardson State Corporat~on Commlss~on Richmond. Vlrgln~a Walter J. Robinson. Jr. V ~ c e President R. D~xon Speas Assoc~ates Atlsnta. Georg~a 30354 J. P Royer. Jr D~rector of Plannlng Commonwealth of Vlrgln~a Department of H~ghways and Transportat~on R~chmond. V ~ r g l n ~ a Sue Seward Subject 8 Reference B~bl~ography NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. 'Jlrglnla 23665 Spyr~don N. S ~ d e r ~ s Ch~ef. Av~at~on Plannlqg & Research Department of Transportat~on Dlvls~on of Aeronautics Sacramento. Calltornla 95822 Rlchard J Slncoff Attorney 401 N Washlngton Stree:. Su~te 207 Rockvllle. Maryland 20950 Wlll~am J Snyder Ch~ef Project Engineer. CIVII Hellcopters FRD Rotor System Sect~on NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrgln~a 23665 John H. Spencer Department of Arch~tecture. Chalrman Hampton lnstltute Hampton. Vlrglnca 23668 Asslstyqt to the C~ty Manager George T~nnea Vlrgln~a Beach. Vlrgln~a 23451 Mane Tuttle Subject 8 Reference Blbl:agraphy, Sect~on Head NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton. Vlrgln~a 23665 Harry A Verstynen. Jr. Av~at~on Safety Technology Branch NASA-Headquarter; Washlngton. D C. 20546 V ~ r g ~ n ~ a Gazette P 0 Box419 W~ll~amsbury. Vlrgln~a 23185 C G Voyles Senlor Vlce-Pres~dent Grumman Amerlcan Av~at~on Corporat~on P 0 Box 2206 Savannah. Georg~a 31402 Clrculat~on 8 Acqulslt~on Sect~on Jane Wagenfeld NASA-Langley Research Center Hampton, Vlrgln~a 23665 Katherine Walker Newport News Board of Education Newport News. Vlrgln~a 23602 Mr. & Mrs. Larry Waltrip WilliamsburgJarnestown Airport 100 Marclay Road Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 Denn~s Warner Pres~dent Public Systems Associates. Inc.

Durham, North Carolina 27707 Lt. Thomas M. Weaver United States Army Transportation PAuseum Fort Eustis, Virginia 23804

APPENDEX D

ORGANIZATION OF THC DESIGN TEAM

0. Section Coordlnaton

A. P n l l m i ~ y Study

To attain the goals of the project within an ewen- In the slxth week unction coordinators were week period, the design study was organized into various selected. They are primarily responsible for preparation phases. Initially, participants were divided into three basic and presentation of information ccntlined therein.

groups for preliminary study: Chaptor I, Q~lreral Aviatlon C o q m m t s amup B ( h a n d ) R. M. Eastman amp A ( w p ~ l y ) B. F. Byrne. Chairman W. Pindur, Chairman Chaptor It, Qonoral b,viatlocr Envlronnnnt J. L. Franklin K. L. Antonlewicz P. B Wigley G. W. Kiteley J J. Bernardc Chaptar Ill, Community PanprcHv~a C. F. Kosbab A. C ~ I I ~ O 1. B. Lev~nstein

R. L. con S. G. de Groot

Chaptor N, Virginla trrnsponatlon Syatwn

J. J. Uhran, Jr. R. M. Eastman B. F. Byrne M. H. Merlcle G. W. Kiteley Group C (Community Imp8ct) Chaptor V. Aviation &nlN Analysis: A Qukkbodc S 8. Frledman. Chalrman W. Pindur T. J. Kub~ak App.ndix E, G k m v I B Lev~nsteln R. K. Wattson, Jr.

H L. L~vas C. L Menges R. K Wattson P. 8. W~gley

E. Other Committees

8. Group Assignments

Durlng the f~nal four weeks o! the study, two addl- Following nvo weeks of prel~minary investigation, a t~onal committees were formed Task Oc!line Committee was formed to determine the editorial Committm Des~gn Tearr.'~ dlrectlon for the remainder of the study M 2. Slncoff lark Outlin8 J S. Gajani G. W. Kiteley. Cha~~man Oral P ~ t a t k ~ n ~ l l l u s t r a t i o n Commitlea S. G. d6 Groot S. B Friedman T. J. Kutiak G. W. K~teley T J Kublak W. P~ndur R L. scon J. J. Uhran. Jr R. K. Wattson Jr.

C. In-Depth Study

Durlng weeks focr through seven, the desls,~ team funct~oned in the following study groups: I. General Aviation II. Community Analysis B F Byrne K L Antonlew~cz R M Eastman J J Bernardo H L Llvas J L Frankl~n M H Merlcle S B Frledrnan R L Scott C F Kosbab R K Wattson, Jr T J Kublak I d Lev~nste~n P B Wlgley W P~ndur J J Uhran. Jr Ill. Data Collection N. Caw Studies S. G. de Groot K L. Anton~ew~cz A Cenko J L Franklln G. W. Kiteley G W. k~teiry C. L. Menges C. F. Kosbab I B Levinstem H L Llvas C L. Menges W. Pindur R L. Scott J. J. Uhran. Jr.

APPENDIX E

GL08SARY

ADAP (A~rport Development Ald Program) Air foil Establ~shed bv the A~rport snd A ~ r ~ a y Development The shape of the cross-sect~on of a surface, or body.

Act of 1970 for ;he puipose of developing a nat~onw~de such as a wlng or propeller Ths rrnss-section IS normally system of publlc alrports Sect~on 14 of the Ac! empowers taken perpendicular to the wlngspan or propeller blade d~ameter Tne spec~al shapes of alrfo~ls are called aidoil the Secreta~y of Transportat~on to make spec~fic grants for alrport development, arld to obltgato funds for almay sections; geometric and aerodynam~c characterlstlcs of development T~tle II of tha Act provtdes for taxes to be col- many such sect~ons are ava~lable In vartous publlcat~ons lected on fuel, alr travel by persons and property, and the Ailer0n use of c l v ~ l a~rcraft It also established an A~rport and Alr- A hlnged surface on the tralllng edge (rear port~on) way Trust Fund (q v ) of a wlng used for roll control In operat~on allerons work ADF (Automat~c D~rect~on F~nder) l ~ k e boat rudders l a ~ d on thew s~des. but one moves up and the other down The alhrons are connected !o tho control A general purpose, low frequency beacon or rzdlo wheel In the c o c k ~ l t Turning the heel to the right calJseS statlon prov~des a slgnal to a~rcraft Instruments, enabllng the r~ght a~leron to deflect upward, the left downward, thus the pilot to home on the beacon rolling the a~rplane to the r~ght Adminirtrator, The Airman The Admln~strator of the Federal Awat~on Admlnls- FAA certlflcated personnel engaged In operat~on tratlon and maintenance of alrcraft, and In operatlon of a w a y faclllt~es The following categorles exlst (1) crew member Aerodynamics engaged In navlgatlon of alrcraft wh~le underway: (2) In- The portion the science physics which deals dlv~dual In dlrecr charge of alrcraft. englne or propeller.

w ~ t h the study of the flow patterns of moving air. and the maintenance, overhaul. or repalrs. and. (3) a~rcrbft d ~ s - forces created on objects past whlch ~t moves The force patcher or traffic control operator exerted by alr on. for example, an alrplane can be thought of as spl~t up Into sevsral contr~but~ons The magnitudes of Airpiane these contr~but~ons depe,id on the shape and slze of the A particular type of alrcraft It IS propelled through alrcraft. on I ~ S orlentallon to the alrstrsam. on the deflec- the alr by a powerplant whlch exerts ~ t s force prepon- t~ons of ~ t s movable control surfaces, and on the power or dersntly forward, and sustalned In the alr malnly by thrust level at whlch ~tr, englnes are operatlng d~fferenllal alr pressures set up on flxed wlng surfaces by ~ t s rnotlon t h r c ~ g h the alr Air Commerce Airpiane Flight Manual Carnage by alrcraft of persons or property for hlre.

carrlape of mall by alrcraft, or operation 21 alrcraft In the The FAA requlres tha; ct.rtaln lnforrnat~on on the conduct cf a busmess or vocat~on Classlf~ed as 1r,tcvstate. opevatlng characterlstlcs of eac i type-cert~f~cated alrcraft overseas, and fore~gn be dlsplayed In the alrcraft In 3 for^^ sultable for use by the p ~ l o t For small alrplanes this lnformat~on IS dlsplayed on Aircraft placards and In an owner's manual For a~rplanes over 6.000 pounds, an Alrplane Fl~ght Manual 1 s prepared One A flight vehlcle sustalned by the atmosphere It may pan of the fl~ght manual must be approved by the FAA This be "I~ghter-than-alr. ' and thus sustalned at least partly and part contams a general dexr~ptlon of the alrcraft, operat- sometimes wholly by aerortatic (displacement) forces, or Ing Ilrn~tat~ons, operatlng procedu~es, and performance In- "heav~er-than-a~r," and thus sustalned by rardynamk format~on To this "approved" sec:ton of the Alrplane Flight forces (due to motlon through the alr) L~ghter-than-alr Manual the menufacturer w ~ l l add an "unapproved" sec- vehlcles are balloons and alrsh~pc, Heav~er-than-a~r vehl- t ~ o n contalnlng further ~nformat~on he judges will be of use cles are alrplanes (fixed-w~ng) hellcopters (powered ro- to pllots flylng the alrplane All "oy~ra!tonal" performance.

tary-w~ng), and a few subordinate types for Instance, will be In this section rangeipayloadn~eld length tradeoffs. fuel consumption data, effect of speed.

Aircraft Categoy (Airworthinerr) (Fixed Wing) alt~tude, and reserves on range, etc "Unapproved" means Normal, Utility, and Acrobatic-Small s~mply that the sectlon IS outs~de FAA's charter Airplanes, alrcraft under 12.500 Ib (FAR 23) Airport Tranrpofl Categoy-A~rcraft over 12.500 Ib (FAR 23). must be multi-englnged (FAR 121) Some k landlng area for alrcraft The Federal Avlat~on Act other mlnor categorles exlst of 1958 adas the words. "used regk'lzrly by alrcraft for recelvlng or dlscharglng passengers or cargo ' Aircraft Repair stition Airport and Almay T ~ r t Fund Certlflcated actlvlty employing cert~flcated person- nel quailfled to repalr alrcraft and equipment A Flxed Base Establ~shed by Sect~on 508 of the Airport and Alrway 01 arator (FBO, q v ) may operate a repalr statlon Developwent Act, the fund was Intended for use In the Air- port and Alrway Devctloprnent Program The tuqd was to be Alrtrame created from the taxes on fuel, travel, and alrcraft collected Structural framework or shell of an alrcraft What 1 s under provlslons of T~tle II of the Alrpon and Almay commonly thought of as an "alrplane manufacturer." IS an Development Act The Secretary of the Treasury holds the alrframe manufacturer An alrfrarne manufacturer may. Trust Fund and reports {early to Congress of the flnanc~al however, make other components besldes structure, and condlt~ons and results of operatlon of the fund dur.ng the asserrbles both hls own and purchased parts to form the fiscal year and on the outlook for the succeeding flve fiscal alrcraft years S, sed of alrcraft relatlve to the alr. The airsp6ed The descending path by whici~ an arrplane closes measuring ic;trume~~i of an alrplane IS typically an alr- the dlstance between ~t and the runway on whlch it is belng pressure-actuated device. which subtracts the ordinary landed. A VFR approach may have three co~isecutlve legs at rtght angles :o each other: (1) 3omwind-approx- barometric pressure from the so-called "tote:" air pressure.

~mately COO-foot height; (2) Buedescending, course at whlch 1 s sensitive to forward speed. The remrnder 1 s the right angles to runway; and (3) Fin.Cdescand~ng, aligned "dynaniic" pmssure. and this 1 s displayed to the pilot on an "airspeed indicator" which is graduated In knots or miles w~th runway. IFR approaches may lack downwind and base per hour Instead of it- pressure u'lits This is the so-called legs 11 the local~zer beam IS approached at an angle and the airplane turned dlrectly into it for final approach.

"indicated airspeed. ' and is no( equal to the true speed of the aircraft througn the air. The conectlon IS (for low A p p r w d speeds and a perfect lneasurlng system) Approved by the FAA Adminlstrator. May perta~n to True alrspeed = Indicated airspeed X alrcraft type cert~f~cates, parts, reports (e g , the "ap- provsc"' sectlon of an a~rplane flight manual), agencies.

Air Denslty Standard sea level alr density ARTCC Air Route Trsfflc Control Center Since at altitude the air density IS dsualiy less than that a!

ATA sea level. the airspeed indicator will read lower than t u e airspeed.

Alr Transport Assoc~ation.

ATC Air Tari Alr Trafflc Control OperatIan complying w~th F-=R Part 135 and CAB Economlc Regulation Part 298 Two kinds: Unscheduled Avai!able Seat lib and Scheduled or "Commuter " On each inter-a~rport fl~ght. the product of alrcraft mlles flown mult~plled by seats available. The seats avalla- Air Tram rtation ble are not necessar~ly the sents ~nstalled, since for some Carr~age by a~rcraft of persons or property as a com- trlps some seats may have to remain unfilled to keep the mon carrler for compensation. or carriage of mall by alrcraft below 11s cert~f~cated gross we~ght.

aircraft Referred to In the Federal Av~at~on Act of 1958 as being. "interstate, overseas. or fore~gn."

Avionics Aviation electronic equipment made for lnstallat~on Airway In alrcraft A fed !rat alrway IS a portion of the nav~gable ? Admlnls- alrspace of t i e Un~ted States des~gnated by aalanced Field Length (BFL) (ref. alrport and airplane

trator as a federal alrway Jet alrway routes . e between

des~gn) the altitudes of 18.000 feet and 48.000 feet Lower a w a y Alrplane takeoff rcn length for a transport category structure extent; down to 1 . 0 feet abave the ground alrplane as determined by the following measurements.

-01stance frcm brake release to atta~nment cf Airworthiness Certificate a he~ght of 50 feet (35 feet for turbine alrcraft), one Documtoit carrled In each a~rcraft declaring 11 to be englne havlng stopped at ? decls~on speed V1 (q v.)

of a type des~gn whlch has be?n class~f~ed by FAA as air- -D~stance from brake release to stop. one worthy It does not mean tha: , . ~ e spectflc aircraft is alnvor- englne having stopped at a decis~on speed V1 thy but only that at the t~me ~t was lssuec' the airplane was in conformity w~th the type des~gn Referer.ces to the actual Proper cholce of V1 makes thes? d~stances equal.

aiworthiness condlt~on of the aircraft w ~ l l be feunJ In ~ t s and the slngle resulting dlstance is kn. Nn as the balanced locbook The cert~ficato must be renewed annuallv. based field longth upor mspectlon of the air-raf, See also FAR Landing Field Length.

Breakeven Parts of Federal Avlation Regulat~ons controlling Load factor at wh~cri revenues equal total operating des~gn and performance aspects of new alrcraft des~gns cost A funct~on of alrcraft size and type. and fare structure Part 23. for example covers small airplanes In normal.

ut~ltty and acrobatic categor,es; Part 25 coven transport category Contents of the reguld:ions for alrcraft are Raaks. corporations. etc . whlch engage in marcst- typically (1) applicability Ilm,!+. (2) defin~t~ons. (3) fl~sht p r - Ing and f~nsnce as dlstlnct from menufacturing.

formance (takeoff. landlng. cllrrlbs, stalls. handling), (4) ap- pl~ed loads (fl~ght. ground or watcr). (5) proof of structure.

CAB (Clvll %-.ronautlcs Board) (6) dmgn end construction. (7) equlpmant requirements.

Indeplldent of FAA Purv~ew-Econom~c develcq- ar~d. (8) lnformat~on to be furn~shed Other alrworthlness ment of av~at~on Umbrella ~ncludesroute granting (:er- regulations cover e. gnes. propellers. and components t~fied carr~ers), scheduling. fare setting. (See Economic Regulations.)

ALPA Airhe Pilots' Assoc~at~on.

Category (of landlng when operat~~~g IFR) Cat C 2 0 0 foot ceillng. 2.600 foot runway vlsual Altitude range. Cat IL-100 and 1.200, and. Cat IIC-O and 5 To larid Usually taken to mean the he~ght of an alrcraft above IFR requlres qual~f~ed (IFR-rated) pilot, properly equ~pped sea level. alrcraft and alrport sewlce (departure control, approach control. local control Categorim of Scheduled Air Tr.n.lprt and ground control), air route traffic cdntrol center rad~o (1) Cert~f~cated-trun~. reg~onal. rupplemental and and radar fl~ght servlce (weather Information and flight cargo, and (2) Noncert~f~catebCommuter/small frsight plans).

and mall Con1mU.d Aimpam Ceiling Alrspace w~thln whlch movement of aircrafl IS con- He~ght of cloud cover above weather reporting Sta- trolled by FAA. Control may apply to some or all aircraft.

tlon It 1 s measured when one-half or m c e of the skv 1 s and may restrict e~ther route or speed.

covered by clouds.

(1) Control area-alnpace des~gnated by FAA from Also. the maxlmum altitude at whlch an airplane can an altitude of 700 feet above defined surface area of cl~mb -t certain speciflc rates General aviat~on alrplanes.

ground except busmess lets, seldom cruse near thew ceiling altitudes (2) Control w n c l u d e s all airspace des~gnated by FAA above and around one or more airports Cert Hiute (3) c o n t h d a l control a r e b a l l alrspase over the The following types of certlflcates are Issued by the 48 contiguous states. above 14.500 feet. VFR traff~c FAA.

proh~blted when vis~bll~ty 1 s below 5 mlles.

(1) hrman Certtflcates Control Sur(ac8s (of aircraft) Pilots Mechanics Movable flaptype hlnged port~ons of the wlngs and Alr Traff~c Controllers tall surfaces of an airplane, or of the flns of an airship. used (2) Alrcraft Certlflcates by the pllot to maneuver ~t or to control ~ t s dlrect~on of Alrcraft fl~ght On a conventional alrplane the three types of Sur- Englne faces are. (1) allerons (q v ). one on each wlng. (2) ekva- Propeller tors. on the hon7ontal tall (the f~xed portion IS the Experimental "stablllzer"); anc'. (3) rudder. on the vertlcal tall (the f~xed i v * port~on IS the "vertical fin").

Product~on co.1-aeIwit Alrworthlness A ratlo between galns and losses. both In the soc~al (3) Air Carr~er Operating Cert~f,-ate (thls 1 s not the and economlc realms. as a result of the reallocation of C e r t ~ f ~ c a t e of P u b l ~ c Convenience and resources The ratlo IS determined by the actual com- Nece~s~ty ) parlson of known and projected dollar costs and benef~ts Cert~fled carrler arlslng due to the reallocat~on The cost-benef~t analys~s Non-cert~f~cated carrler assumes, however. that all costs and beneflts can be Supplemental carrler measured In the market (1.e.. w~th dollar values).

(4) Alr Nav~gat~on Faclllty ( 5 ) Alr Agency Ratlng course Fllght and ground Tralnlng SchmIs The ~ntended direct~on of fl~gt,t In a horizontal plane Alrcraft Repalr and Maintenance Stat~ons The course 1 s not necessarily the dlrect~on in whlch the City Pair alrcraft 1 s polnted (see heading).

The termlnal communltles In an alr tnp: the orlgln Cruise. Cruise flight and issrlnat~on on a one-way bas6 This 1 s ~ n l y colnc~den- A "crulslng" alrcraft is In level. unaccelerated fl:ght tally the same as a roctor (q.v.).

at any speed at which such fllght can be malntalnea. The Civit Aircrafl (of the Un~ted States) cruse speeds usually chosen are much nearer the alrcraft's top speed than 11s stall~ng speed.

Any alrcraft registered under the provlslons of the Federal Av~at~on Act of 1958.

An economy cruise IS flowr at or very near the speed for whlch the alrcraft's fuel consumprlon per ground mlle Common Carrier traversed IS a m~n~mum A transportatlon busmess that offers ~ t s servlces for A cruise 8Ititud. IS the altltude authorized by Alr public h1.e Traffic Control In a fl~ghl plan clearance: the pllot may nor- Community mally fly at an) altlrude between the m~ntmum en route altitude or the mlnlmum obstacle clearance altl*ude for the Clty. town. or regon under study The community IS route. and the alt~tude speclfled In the clea-ance. The made up of a group of indlvlduals poswdjlng a "feeling" of crulse alt~tudi IS taken to be the he~ght of the alrcraft or. In fact. havlna a common object~ke or economlc, soc~al.

above sea level or polltlcal bond.

CTOL (Convent~onal Takeoff and Landlrlg) Commuter A catch-all term whlch Includes all alrcraft w ~ t h no Subdlvls~on of Air Tax1 Operator Alr Tax1 Operators devices other than flaps, and perhaps leadlng edge engage In dlrect alr transportatlon w~thln the 48 contiguous &vlces, spec~flcally devised to shorten the takeoff and states whlch do not utlllze large alrcraft They are tandlng field lengths required If. however. due to the ex- registered wlth the CAB, but do not hold cnrtlfrcates of treme sophlstlcat~on of ~ t s flaps and leadlng edge devices, publlc convenience and necess~ty Pursuant to published an alrplane can achleve substant~ally shorter takeoffs and schedules. a commuter makes at least five round trlps per landlngs than other contemporary alrplanes of ~ t s we~ght.

week between two c r more points.

.

speed, and general class. ~t could be considered a STOL or Control (Alr Traff IC) RTOL a~rplane rather ;han a CTOL alrplane Services offered by FAA to exped~te trafflc flow As There IS no "off~clal" designatlor, of alrplanes as seen by pllot these take the form of maps and charts, tower CTOL. RTOL, or STOL 0.cislon HdghI FBO (Fixed base operator) Helght at whlch decision must be reached, durlng an An FBO may offer a variety of servlces on an aNrwrt.

Instrument approach. on whether to land or "execute --krcrafi storage and parking m~ssed approach " -Fuel sales -Arcraft. engine, and accessory maintenance and mpalr -Aircrafl sales (new. used) and rental Ut~lization of human and natural resource base for -Fl~ght and ground instruc 'on the max~mlzation of soclal and economic benefits -Arcraft parts 2nd accessory sales throughout the "community.'

--Speclabzed servlces (e.g. alr ambulance) DME (Distance Measuring Equipment.) An FBO may also be the alrport owner krbome and ground equlpment used to mjasure. In nautical miles, the dlstance of an eircraft from a iavigation a~d.

"An act to continue the Civil Aeronautics Board as an Agency of the United States. to create a k&ral Av~a- tton Agency. to provide for the regulation and prornot~on of clvll aviat~on in such a manner as to best foster ~ t s develop ment and safety, and to prov~de for the safe and effic~ent DOT-Department of Transportation.

use of the airspace by both c1v11 and mllltary aircraft, and for other purposes " Eeonolnic Factors As or~glnally wntten. the act provided for the FAA to Trade area. Income (per caplta or median), labor be an independent agency responsible only to the Presc- force. employment/unemployment. industnal mlx. reti+l~ dent. and for the CAB to be charged w ~ t h accldent In- and wholesale trade. population. tax base. and employ- vestlgat~on as well as economic regulat~on The Depart- ment sectors.

ment of Transpcrtatlon Act of 1966 placed the FAA under the Department of Transportat~on and removed the accl- dent invest~gatlve function from the CAB and placed ~t Alrcraft w~th normal operat~onal equ~pment but with under the Nat~onal Transportat~on Safety Board A con- #to l~quids except actuating systems. Empty welght 1 s 5565 trovzrsy exists as to wnether these changes benef~ted avla- percent TOGW for small almlanes.

t ~ o n Experimental Certifkate Fie# Elevation Document issued by FAA, un&r which one spec~fic Height of airport runways above sea level alrplane may be flown uslng an experimental fl~ght test crew only. Homebu~lts presently operate under experimen- tal certlf~cates Pressure altltude related to standard sea level pres- sure. given in hundreds of feet Fl~ght levels are cailed by FAA (Federal Aviation Admlnlstrat~on) t h ~ s name starting at 18.000 feet altltude Presentk part of Department of TranspoFtat~on Pur- RigM Plan view-safety aspects of aviation llnder which FAA cerHlk.

ptlots. rnechanlcs, other operators. repalr stat~ons. alrcraft.

Data on a single proposed IFR fl~ght. flied w ~ t h FAA Instruments and equipment: airports (:ert~f~cated traffic Fl~ght Servlcz by the pilot before departure. Includes type only), airlines. manufacturing facilltles (through Issuance reglstrat~on number. and color of arrcraft. p~lot's name.

of product~on certlflcates to manufacturing companies number of passengers aboard. destlnatlon and alternate.

bu~ldlng type-cert~fled arcraft) FA4 operates alrwzy amount of fuel on board. routing.

equlpment (rad~o and radar). fl~ght service stations. FAA regulates dl1 of the above FSS ( i l ~ g h t Sewlce Station) rhls actlvity relays trafflc control messages. br~efs FAR (Federal Avlatlon Regulat~ons) p~lots. dlssemlnates weather information. and monltors Documents havlng the force of law (part of U S nav~gat~onal ads Code) prescrlblng technical and procedural aspects of the conduct of the av~atlon community. Fuel All alrcraf: of the present day use petroleum pro- FAR Lending Fiela Length ducts as fuels 1 67 tlrnes actual land~ng dlstence of a type alrcraft Aviation Gasoline ("Avgas") 1 s used by the under glven environment (alt~tude and temperature) An pistonengine fleet Small airplanes use a product In alrcraft operating under Part 121 may not be d~spatched to the general octane-number range of "Ethyl" auto- a destlnat~on at whlch ~t cannot be brought to a stop wlthln mob& gasollne Large p~ston-eng~ned aircraft use tne f~rst 60 percent of an active runway Calculated landlng gasoline w ~ t h octane ratlngs in excess of 100 The held lengths are used In des~++ of alrports and arcraft plston englne In ~ t s present form will not d~gest other fuels Fare Kerosene 1 s used by some of the turblne Tarlff pa~d bv passenger for pnvllege cf r~dlng engine fleet. others use a fuel whlch has no slngle Usually on an average fare structure w ~ l l conslst by im- commerc~cll des~gnat~on but 1 s known lo the mllltary plkalion of a boardlng fee and a m~leage rate Must be ap- as JP4, and 1 s comparable to a wlde-cut gasoline proved by CAB for certlflcated ca rlers. sector by sector Turblne englnes conf~gured for "jet fuels" such zs Commuter f?res are generally compat~blt except for the above will accept avlatlon gasoline only for very effects of a~rplane sue and performanceon fares requlreu short perlods of runnlng, so the use of avgas In tur- to make a prof~t btne englnes 1 s restr~cted to emergencies.

G trunk and regional alrllnes and some commuters partlci- pate The ac: 'lerat~on of gravlty at the earth's surface (31.17 feet per second per second) is frequently referredto Knot as "one 'g' " Any other acceleratlon, expressed In the One nautlcal mlle per hour Standard alrspeed unlt same un~ts. can be referred to as "so many g's" by div~ding worldwide. See "nautlcal mlle."

that acceleration by the acceleratlon of gravity For exam- * ple. an accelerat~on of 64.34 feet per second. or twlce that Limiting WoigMs of gravlty, becomes "2 g's " Alrcraft accelerat~ons, such as Maximum weight at whlch an alrplane can take off at In pullups or turns, are so expressed; the general name for a glven held under given environment. Weight may be the quotient accelerat~on/accelerat~on-of-gravlty is the l~mlted by runway length or cllmb Capablllty. Used by all "load factor" (q.v. for another defln~tlon) In aircraft d gn.

cert~ficated alrllnes and by most commuters. they are part applied structural loads are obtalned first as load 1, .ars of FAA-requlrod lnforrnatlon In an alrplane fl~ght manual.

(I e . accelerat~ons experienced by the aircraft or aircraft

component In fl~ght) and then converted to tnelr force Load Factor equivalents by introducing the component masses.

(1) "Flight '-structural defln~t~ons. not pertinent here. (2) "Passenger"-number of passengers belng car- Heading ried 'number of passenger seats ava~lable: and (3) "Over- The dlrectlon In whlch the nose of an alrcraft is all"-ratlo of actual or assumed payload to total payload of polnted. vlewed on a horizontal plane Headlngs are alrcraft.

typically expressed In degrees. measured clockwise from magnetlc nortn. Slnce the air mass In which the alrplane IS Local S.nlce Carrier ("Regional") operating may be moving sideways across the desired Certificated domestic route arr --men operatlng course of fllght, the headlng of the alrcraft may not be the routes of lesser dens~ty and average length between small same as the course as laid out on a map. but will be off and princ~pal trafflc centers.

toward the s~de of the course from whlch the alr mass IS a p proachlng Mach Number True a~rspeedlspeed of sound in alr In local free stream Usually referred to as. e g-. "Mach 0 8 " A particular !ype of alrcraft It IS both propelled and sustained In the atr substant~ally by the d~fferent~al air pres- Manuals sures set up on rotary wlngs. hlnged :o a powered axis Each amplane over 6.000 pounds maximum cert~fi- cated yrws weight must be prwlded w~th an approved Airpbno FligM Manual. Airplanes below 6.000 pounds will Alrcraft. 51 percent of whlch. 1 s bullt by the in- have Ownar's Manuals. Each domestic and flag canler dlvidual owner May not be flown as an alr carrler Home- must prcvlde a manual for the use of fllght and ground builts are all small and mostly prlmltlve with respect to operatlons personnel (and for management pe~sonnel In rad~o equ~pment Antlque restorations can come under the case of supplemental carriers) These manuals are homebullt category Not certlflcabb as a type--must be In- dlv~ded Into sections contalnlng ~nformation for each dlvldually FAA Inspected and approved category of personnel Some typlcal toplcs are pollc~es.

Hot Atmosphere personnel dut~es and respons~bil~tles. types of aircraft and operatlons authorized for each route. crew requirements.

Flctitlous atmosphere representing a typical mid- normal and emergency operatlng procedures. ~nspect~ons.

summer day In warmer areas Beglns at 103' at sea level we~ght and balance procedbres. and safety lnformat~on and lnstructlons The alrcrar, manufacturer prov~des a Housing maintenance manual for h ~ s alrcraft. wh~ch Includes such Bulldlngs and serv~ces Intended for prov~dlng dwell- thlngs as: Ing. lncludlng prlvate homes, h~gh-rise unlts and houslng projects System descript~ons Lubrlcat~on lnstruct~ons IOC--see Operating Cost.

Pressures and electrical loads Tolerances and adlustmen15 IFR (Instrument Fl~ght Rules) Methods of leveling, ra~sing. and towlng IFR condlt~ons prevall when toe weather IS not good Control surface balancing enough for fl~ght by v~sual reference to the ground Inspect~on, repalr, spclal tools The manufacturer will also p r w ~ d e a parts catalog ILS (Instrument Landlng System) Prov~des electrical SlgnalS formlng a cross-shaped Marker pattern along the gllde path (The gl~de path IS the llne of An electronic s~gnal generated by an Instrument lntersectlon Of lhe wo signals- the "glide and landing system to form a "milepost" on a landing approach "locallzer ") Alrcraft control systems can be slaved to path Two usually referredto "outer" and "m~ddle " Outer these s~gnals to control the approach automat~cally.

marker may be a reporttng point on an amroach. and usually IS 4-7 mlles from runway threshold.

Impact The effect cpon the varlous community systems or WmigM sub-systems produced by the lntroductlon of a new sub- Not less than 5 percent under TOGW unless fuel jet-

system (e g . new airport) or a change In an exlstlng system

tlson IS provlded (FAR)

(e g . extend~ng setvlcel;)

InterUno Agmmant Metro?olitan

Urban area wlth - -entral city of at least 50.000 per-

Agreement between alrllnes coverlng tlcket servlc- Ing, baggage handling. and m~scellaneous setvlces All sons M i d Appmch Pitch An IFR approach tc a landing whlch is bborted prlor Nose-up or nose-down att~tude of the alrcraft in to reachlng the touchdown point, and the airplane climbed fl~ght.

out to try again or to fly to an aRemattw8 destinatm. The missed approach must be decided on at or before a minimum declsion height. Intended destination of flight, and destination to which dlvers~on may occur if necessary (e.g , for weather) Nautical lYik Promability One mlnute of arc at sea level on the earth's surface at the equator (about 1 .I5 statute miles). See "knot." Difference between net passenger tlcket pluslor cargo revenues, and total operating costs. Can be pre- NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board) dicted for sector or route if fare structure and demand are Part of DOT. hrview-investigat~ve aspects of known, or for design d they are assumed.

safety (NTSB and FAA commonly both invest~gate alrcraft accidents, but NTSB isempowered to determine the proba- All cornbtnations of stage length i n d payload, uslng ble causes).

whit h a specific type of arrcraft can conceivably make OAG4fflc1al Alrllne Guide muney under a glven fare structure.

0 and D-Origin and Destlnatlon Reports Radar Reports of passenger traffic required by CAB of all A system for locating an object such as an airplane.

certificated carriers, poss~bly In future of all commuters.

by displaying on a screen or scope a bnght spot represent- Ing !% airplane, generated by ultra h ~ g h frequency radlo Omni waves reflected to a recelver by the a~rplane Nickname for VOR (q.v.)

Recreation Operating Cost (of alrcraft and alrllnes) Facll~t~es for carrying out spec~fic recreat~onal ac- DOC (direct) tivities parks. movle theaters. opera houses. concert halls.

arenas. gymnasiums, and recreat~on centers Flight operations Crew UeglstmUon Fuel and 011 FAA or state l~cense declaring one spec~fic alrcraft Tralning to be In existence and owned by one spec~flc person. Is not Deprec~al~on (of a l ~ ?nd spares) a permlt for the alrcrafi to be cjperated Insurance (hull, of a/c\ Maintenance (of a/c ar d equ~pment) Gsintenance burden Difference between total fuel on board at start of IOC (direct) fllght and est~mated fuel used durlng miss~on Reserves are prescribed by FAR 91 (general avlatlon operatlng rules) Stat~on operating cost Admlnlstrat~on and 121 (air transport operatlng rules). Generally taker1 to Adverhslng be allowances for holdlng and flight to alternate destina- Equipment (except stat~on) tlon. but for deslgn frequently taken to include also de- scet~t. missed approach and cllmbout from mlssec; ap- Insurance (except ale) proach FOI talking purposes 200 nautlcal rnlles plus 15 Operating Regulatjons mlnutss IS usually used to portray fuel reserves Parts of Federal Av~at~on Regulat~ons Part 91 covers RNAV (Area Navlgatlon) general aviation; Part 121 c w e n certlf~cated air transport.

A method of navigation that permlts a~rcraft opera- Part 125 covers alr tax1 operators The rules govern the tlons on any deslred course withln the coverage of statlor.- manner In whlch alrcraft may be operated and Include sec- referenced nav~gation s~gnals or wtthln the l~rn~ts of self- tons on manuals required. operatlng and crew ilm~tat~ons.

conta~ned system capablllty Uslng RNAV. 11 1 s not necess- a~worthiness and lnstrumentat~on requlrements. records ary to be or! the established always between OMNl sta- and reports Part 121 also contalns certlflcatlon rules, ap- Uons !n order to recewe "on-course" s\gnals Instead.

proved ruies for routes. amrew fhght tme kmita\\ons. and uslng the on-board RNAV equipment. f ~ c t ~ t ~ o u s "airways" dlspatch rules.

may be set up uslng the s~gnals from actual OMNl statlons Operation (from airport) and the airplane flown on these "a~ways " One takeoff or one landlng Roll Operator Motlon of an alrcrait In fllght about a genevally fore- A company or lndlv~dual who owns or leases alrcraft and-ah axls through ~ t s center of -ravlty for varlous uses; the p~lot of an alrplane.

Overrun A daflned path, cons~stlng of one or more courses.

Unpaved extension of paved runway sultable for whlch an a~rcraft traverses over the ground. v~ewed on a emergency stops Conslsts of "clearway" and "stopway " hor~zontal plane Payload RTOL (Reduced Takeoff and Landlng) Revenue-producing portlon of the useful load of an A type of alrplane whose takeoff ard landlng perfor- alrcraft Some small alrplane manufacturers Include crew mance IS better than a CTOL a~rplane. but not as good as a and crew's baggage In the rayload for engineering pur- STOL alrplane Tochnkally an PTOL alrplane would Incor- poses. porate a very low wing loadlng or some form of powered phenomenon based upon any or all sooal, economic. and Ilft Operationally the f~eld lengths are thought of as b~o-phys~cal factors (e.g.. Improved houslng, recreat~on.

3,500-4,000 feet.

etc. or citlzen attitude concerning improved soc~al environ- Note. Slnce In practlce large a~rplanes have longer ment).

f~eld performance than small alrplenes incorporating slml-

lar technical features (e g . klnds of flaos), an alrplane slze

Special Conditions bracket should be anached both to th6 def~n~t~on of RTOL Addit~ons or mod~flcations for FARs, negot~ated be- and of STOL) tween FAA and alrframe manufacturer prior to stan of an ai 'tame development program These are not "Amend- Rural ments" for the FAR in that they govern only the spec~f~c Places of less than ?.500 persons or d~ffuse popula- model type to be developed.

tlon with an employment base primarily in agriculture.

Spoilers RVR (Runway Vlsual Range) Movable, hlnged surfaces on the top of a wlng. The The hor~zontal dlstance along a runway at whlch a most common form looks l ~ k e a small, ups~dedown wtng p~lot about to land can see the h ~ g h lntenslty runway I~ghts.

flap When ralsed, the device "spoils" the I!ft on part of the Sector (referred to as "stage" In desi~n) wing (breaks up the smooth alr flow). Spoilers can be used one-side-at-a-t~rre for roll control or all at once for steep Length of a scheduled route, between two cit~es at emergency descents at h~gh speed.

whlch takeoff and landlng are made consecutively.

Sport Aviation Segment (climb) Segment of the avlatlon commun~ty devoted in large Port~on of takeoff or landlng cl~mbout performed in a part to flylng for pleasure and buildlng indlv~dual alrcraft spec~flc fl~ght conf~gurat~on for pleasure.

1st - e a r down. flaps down, cowl flaps open, engines at takeoff power or thrust Stalling S p e d (Vs) Alrspeed below whlch an avplane cannot malntaln 2nd mgnwnt--gear up. flaps down, englnes a! maxlmum contlnuous power or thrust horizontal fllght due to the decay of l ~ f t on its wings. The stalling speed IS h~ghest w~th wing flaps retracted, lowest En m u t e g e a r and flaps up, englnes at max- w~th flaps fully extended. The stalling speed 1 s also invene- lmum contlnuous power or thrust ly proportlonal to the square root of the alr dens~ty and Approactc ear and flaps In approach posl- dlrectly proportlonal to the square root of the wlng loadlng tlons, engines at ,: uclmum contlnuous power or (q.v) Some alrplanes have a "mlnlmum flylng speed" thrust below whlch the~r powerplants do not have enough power to malntaln level fl~ght, but whlch IS above the stalling Balked Landing-gear down, flaps at landlng speed setting, englnes at takeoff power or thrust Thls 1 s an all engine cl~mb STOL (Short Takeoff and Landlng) Mln~rnum standards for alrplanes are set by FAR Two deflnlt~ons (1) Operational: not flrm but Pans 23 and 25 For purposes of settlng up takeoff fl~ght thought of as 1.000-2.000 foot balanced f~eld length. (2) paths at airports, multlenglned alrplanes of transport Technical: Ser~es of technolog~cal developments whlch catego~y e.g , buslness jets. are assumed to have one

can be appl~ed to alrcraft of any slze (e g . Boelng 727 1 s a

englne fa~led durlng all cl~mbs except balked-land~ng "mlld" STOL alrplane) These developments lnclude multi- climb As presently prescribed. 2nd segment cl~mb usually pkelement alrfolls, spoiler controls. boundary layer con- is crltccal for establishing takeoff fl~ght paths and llm~tlng trol (var~ous types), and comblned loft-thrust systems we~ahts Penalty of lncorporatlng "severe" STOL technology Shrouded Prapeiler can range from 2 percent ( b ~ g alrplane) to 10 percent (small alrplane) of gross weighi Th~s 1 s usually intolerable for A propeller w~th a r~ng-shaped wlng surrounding the revenue-produc~ng types propeller dlsc or plane of motlon The central axls of the rlng wlng IS the same as that of the propeller The rlng Suneillace Radar wlng. 11 properly des~gned, Increases the statlc and low- speed thrust of the unlt for the same power Input, but A long range (about 200 mlles) radar for tracklng en usually lowers the u n ~ t efficiency in crulslng fl~ght route alrcraft along an alrway. 1 s known as "en route" ASR Alr Suwo~llance Radar prov~des for termlnal area alr trafflc control and alrcraft locat~on lnformat~on to tower operators A small auxlllary alrfoll whlch can be deployed from T a k W fligM Path the leadlng edge of a wlng to Improve ~ t s h~gh l ~ f t capablllty Computed p .h of an alrplane takeoff from 50 feet (35 feet for turbinc-powered alrcraft) to feet helght above ground Used In alrporl development w r k to set The cyl~r~dncal stream of fast-mov~ng alr behlnd the maxlmum permlss~ble obstacle he~ghts near apprsach and propeller o! an airplane In fl~ght, or beneath the rotor of a departitre paths hoverlnr, hellcopter Tschnical S' dard Order Small Alrcrafl Performance and qual~ty control standard for com- Alrcraft under 12.500-pound TOGW ponents (alrplanes, englnes, and props are not "TSO'd."

I e.. presented for determlnatlon that they comply with the Social Factor* standard) A properly funct~onlng component of a TSO'd Hous*ng, educat~on, government servtces and ex- type may be Installed on any alrplare capable of utlllzlng ~t pend~tures, rerreat~on, publlc asststance health sewlces.

Components may also be "approved" spec~!lcally for In- l ~ f e styles, and q.~al~ty of 11fe-a measured or perceived stallat~on In an a~rplane of a speciflc type to stop or to contlnue the takeoff run The value of Tetrahedron publoshed in an Airplane Flight Manual IS that for whlch the Wlnd lndlcator on alrport, vi-.~ble to pllots of alrcraft "go" and "stop" distances requlred are equal In theory In vlclnlty thls glves the pilot a means of decldlng whether to (ro or Thmshold (of runway)

stop. I e . 11 an engine fb:ls at a speed below V1, he should

stop, if above V1, he should go.

"Near" end of runway for approaching a~rcraft TOC (Total Gperating Cost) "mc Minimum Control Spod-Alnpeed below whlch an The sum of DOC (Direct Operatlng Cost) and IOC alrplane cannot be controlled as to dlrectlon of path, either (Indirect Operatlng Cost) ir. alr or on ground. Vmc must be no grc lter than 1 2 Vs at some mlnlmum we~ght May control llmltlng weight for takeoff L~terally "takeoff gross ue~ght"-The maxlmum we~ght, at takeoff brake release, for whlch an alrplane IS VASI (Vtsual Approach Slope Indicator) cert~ficated. There may be a "ramp wetght" at engtne start.

above TOGW A system of llghts st the s~des of a runway that glves visual descent gu~dance dunng the approach Each l~ght Traffic unlt projects toward the approach~ng aircraft a beam of Alrcraft operating In atr or on ground t~ght havlng a white segtnent In the upper part of the beam and a red segment In the lower pan if the p~lot of an Transponder airplane on approach sees red hghts. he IS undershooting.

An airborne radar beacon rece~ver-transm~tter whlch 11 wiiife, he 1 s overshooting automatically recelves rad~o signals from all interrogators on the ground and whlch selectively repl~es w ~ t h a spec~fic VFR (Visual Fllght Rules) reply pulse or pulse group, only to those interrogations In general. VFR cond~t~ons for fllght exlst when the being received on the mode to which ~t IS set to respond weather IS good enough for the alrcraft to be operated by The modes vary wlth the purpose for whlch the transponder visual reference to the ground is belng used (~dent~flcation, alt~tude reporting, emeraen- VOR ("Omni") CY) Very hlgh frequency omn~d~rect~onal rad~o range A Transportation ground rat80 station whlch prov:des an aircraft. equlpped With respect to control publlc and private Mass w ~ t h a sultab!e receiver, wlth locatlon informat~on Works transportat~on has recently become cons~dered In a speclal l ~ k e tr~angulation In surveying. (Two stalrons required for category, but is generally thought of In a public-utility fra- accuracy urless alrcraft 1 s specially equipped ) mework.

VORTAC Turbofan VORTAC Incorporates VOR and Tactlcal Air Nav~ga- S~m~lar to turbolet except that not all the air Ingested tlon equ~pment .nto a slngle system 1 s run through the cornbustlan chamber Some IS VTOL (Vertical Takeoff and Lhndlng) " bypsssed ."

-..-&-*-a Onlv ooe'ational clvll tvue now IS the hel~cooter l U-JO1 Other conce&s have been trled All types. lncludlng hell- Alrbreathlng reactw- englne, whtch compresses alr cop,er. are expensive to operate and malntaln relat~ve to uslng rotatlng machinery. :dds fuel. burns and exhausts flxed-wlng conventional a:.craft the fuel-a~r mixture to create thrust. In a aenerallv stralaht

- -

path and cont~nuously. Weight Restrictiw (on a~rcraft category) (1) Airworthlnsu FAR 23. 25. etc.)

f u r b o ~ r o ~ Simllar to turbojet except that substant~ally all - 12.500 Part 23

-

available excess energy from fuel compression and burn- 12.50(, (Tre sport category) Part 25 Ing IS used to drive a convent~ona\ prope!ler (2) Economk Reg?r:*tion (CAB 298) Technically, a turboprop is a bypass englne whlch Air T~xI-7.500 Ib r 3yload or 30 passenger seats routes through the propeller about 4 8 tu-nes the alrmass ~t Wing Loclding routes through the cornpress~on/combust~on/expsns~on cy- cle. Welght. W, of an a~rplar~e jlvlded oy ~ t s wlng area. S Slnce some small proportion of the welght of the a~rplane Typa Cortifkatm ln flight 1 s sustained by the fuselage, a conventionally certlflcate under which all airplanes of a given general model are declared techn~cally alfworthy if In con-

$ ~ l ~ ~ , l ~ ~ ~ f ~ ~ ~ $ ~ . " p ~ ~ ; l ~ ~ ~ ~ " , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . "

formlty w~th the FAA-approved manufacturer's plans alrplane centerl~ne The stalllns *peed of an alrplane of glven geometry

Prlmltlve rad~o faclllty at small alrports Can com- IS proport~onal to fi6

munlcate w ~ t h airplanes, but does not control trafflc.

work Workem (profess~onal level. skilled and unsk~lled labor). and F a ~ i l ~ t ~ e s (special factories!

Takeoff gross welght minus empty welght Usable Yaw for passengers, crew, baggage and cargo, l ~ q u ~ d s and ex- tra furnishings, and equipment. Angular rnotlon of an alrcraft In f112ht. about an axts passlng through ~ t s center of gravlty, the axls belng ap- proximately vertlcal when the alrplane IS In stralght-ana- Airspeed, during takeoff run, at whlch an cnglne IS level fl~ght Yaw IS Seen from the cockplt as a "nose-r~ght" assumed to fall. At this polnt the p~lot must dec~de whether or "nose-left" swlng

APPENDIX F

VIRGINIA AIRPORT DATA BANK

To gain insight into the relationship between the by a check mark bestde e~ther the "publc" or "private" various facton important in airport development, an exten- Ilne. The "alrport operator" lndlcates the f~xed base opera- slve amount of data ware collected for each airport in tor (FBO) at the alrporl and hls phone number.

Virginia and recorded on a separate short form devised for mat purpose. A sample data sheet is shown in Figure F-1 A Physical FIcilly Paramoton The data included such items as facil~ties available.

In thls section are ~ncluded those parameters whlch development potential, degree of utilization, alternative describe the facilltles and sewices available at each alr- modes of transportation and demographic data. The data to port T~~~ have been coded and a scale each these categories and the differentlate between the level of faclllties at each alrpOrt system used are described in this =ppendix. On the Figure F-2 shows the scale and the polnt value ass~gned to categoriesare designated by capital btters (A. 8. C, D. and each level of the scale In general, the scale is self-ex- desctiblng the d3'a in each are planatory The values of the scale for the aircraft capacity designated by the same letter 7 section IabeIed "A", for are based on FAA standards for airport runway lengths as instance, describes the Physical Facility Parameters shown ~n Table F-l Doscriptor and Locator Intarmalion

e. mmkpmmt potential

In the top right hand corner of the sheet, a number In this section the potentla1 for future development has been ass~gned to each alrport, based on an a!phabet~- and '% resources for such are shown The flnt I~ne--"plan cal listing of the nearest city, as in the .near city- lnCIuS1On"-'S as Ilne. The alrport name IS glven In the "airport" line. The 4--included In FAA and/or Vlrgin~a Alr Transporta- "county/un~t;' ~ndicates the county or ~ndependent unlt ~n which the airport is located The "planning d~strict" l~ne in- tlon System Plan for s~gn~f~cant development d~cates the number of the plannlng dlstrlcts In which the 3-~ncluded ~n FAA or VATS tor some development airport is located. Publ~c or private ownership IS ~nd~cated 2-~ncluded In FAA or VATS for no major changes

TABLE F-I

FAA DIMENSION STANDARDS

(Minimum Dimensions in Feet)

General Basic Basic easic Utility Transport Transport Utility NPA NPA ILS Hypothetical Lengths1 Width RAN Safety Area Taxiway R M I Centerline to: TMI Centerline AIC Parking Area Building Restriction iine TMI Centerline to: A/C Parking Area Fixed or Movable Objects Parallel TMI Approaches Clear Zone Length Width Weight Bearing (000)

' Lengths are determined by temperaiure, al,itude and effective R/W gradient

Source: from FAA Advisory Circulars, 150i5300-4A and 150/5300-6, and FAR Part 77 as compiled by R. Dixon Speas Associates.

AIRPORT EVALUATION

Near City Airport --

Public

CountyAJnit Planning District Private

Airport Operator: Name Phone

I

A. Physical Facility Parameters: (total coded 0-22). Total

1. Air Transportation Services

2 . Operational Capability

3. Aircraft Capacity

4. General Aviation Services

5. Ground Transportation

6. Developmental Potential: Plan inclusion (coded 0-5)

1. Existing Level Planned Level -

2. Est. Total Cost Est. Sponsor Cost

Per capita cost

O / O local sponsors

3. Sponsors/Owners

4. Tax Base Taxes Levied -

-

5. Comment: C. Degree of Util~zation:

1. Number of Annual Operations % itinerant

2. Number of based aircraft:

Single (1-3) Single (4+) Multi

3. Fuel Sold

4. Estimated hours flown annually:

Based on Operations Based on Fuel Sold

5. Estimated User Cost

I D. Alternate Modes of Transportation:

1. Highways: Int. Va. Art. Va. Pri. V a . Sec. -

2. Bus: Agency Directions Busespay-

by direction

Express Local

3. Rail-Passenger: Directions TrainstDay

by direction

4. Rail-freight: Railroads

Directions

5. Air-Airlines: Number DestinationsDay

Major Service to

6. D~stance to Other Airports: Nearest

Other 1

AIRPORT EVALUATION FORM

FIGURE F-1

1-llm~ted sewice potential or not Included in FAA or Line 84 shows both the tax base and the amount of VATS plan taxes levied. In general, the tax data were included as an indication of the financial resources of the governmental Line number 0-1 in Figure F-1 indicates the change unit responsible for the airport and thus of its ability to fi- In level, as described in Figure 4-4 of the text of this report.

nance the construction andlor maintenance of the faclllty.

The oxistlng arld planned levels are shown. On Llne 8-2.

The "tax base" was obtained by adding the true value of thz total cost of the planned improvements is shown. The the municipality's real and publ~c servlce corporation pro- percent that the local sponsor must put up is shown ~n th~s perty with the assessed value of ~ t s personal properly. The category. The per caplta cost is shown for all the local units municipality ~n each case was the political subdiv~sion or involved. In Line 8-3, the name of the sponsor or owner IS subdivisions (in the case G ! joint ventures) that contributed given.

SCALING SYSTEM

This is a 22-Point Scale. Total Scores are the sum of individual scores on each of 5 Physi- cal Facility Dimensions as follows: 1. Air Transportation Senice, 5. International Air Carrier 4. Certificated Air Carrier (Trunk or national carrier) 3. Certificated Local Service Carrier (Regional carrier) 2. Commuter Air Line (Scheduled air :=xi) or Intra-state Airline.

1. Charter or unscheduled air taxi available.

0. None.

2. Operational Capabilitier

5. Instrument Landing System (precision: ILS with localizer) 4. Instrument approach (non-precision: ILS) 3. Runway lights, beacon, and approved or published instrument approach.

2. Two of the above.

1. One of the above.

0. None.

Aircraft Capacity

5. Up through and including transport aircraft o! 175,000 Ibs., hypothetical runway =

6,000 feet. runway width - 150 feet. (ST, AC. or GT classifications)

4. Transport aircraft up to 60,000 Ibs., hypothetical runway=5,000 feet, runway width =

100 ft. (BT classification) 3. Paved runway longer than hypothetical value of 4,200 feet, width= 75 ft., handling

general aviation aircraft up through and including 12.500 Ibs. (generally, GU

classification) 2. Paved runway between 3,400 and 4,199 feet handling general aviation aircraft up to 12,500.

1. Paved runways between 2,000 and 3,399 feet.

0. Paved runways less than 2,000 feet or any sod runway.

4. General Aviation Service8

4. Major repairs, fuel, rental and flight instruction (unless banned) 3. Minor repairs, fuel, rental and flight instruction 2. Fuel and either rental or flight instruction 1. Fuel only 0. None

5. Ground Transportation

3. Taxi, car rental and bus or limousine 2. Taxi and car rental 1. Taxi or courtesy car only

0 . None

PHYSlCAL FACILITY PARAMETERS

FIGURE F-2

hoursloperation performed by that aircraft type to deter- to the support of the airport through public funds. Although the assessed value of personal property is not i 4ntical to r,rne the total hours flown by all alrcraft of that type at the the true value, the former was chosen as a reliable appr9r- airports The hours flown were then multiplied by the average hourly operatlng cost to determine the usor cost imation thereof slnce true value data were not available.

for each aircraft type * A sample calculat~on IS given In Ta- "Taxes levled" were simply the sum of the real estate and ble F-ll. The user costs for the three alrcraft types were personal property taxes levied In the appropriate municl- palities. then added to arrlve at a figure for the total user cost at the airport Llne 8.5 IS labeled "Comment." and allows the Although the preceding analys~s was developed recording of any additional relevant 11;5wr1ation that m~ght from data ava~lable for 1967 and 1968, the relatlve break- be useful in explaining the possible impact :hat the airprt down between alrcraff types does not change slgnltlcantly may have on tho community. This Includes items such as in the two years and should hold to the present (Table F-ll) prox~mity to metropolltan areas, existence of an industrial Furthermore, the figures expressing total user cost.

airpark, types of industry In the community, and so forth.

although generated In terms of 1967 dollars, IS felt to be a Especially cons~dered were any pecul~ar characteristics of better estimate of the economlc Impact of alrcraft actlvity the airport or community whlch did not amear In other data at an airport than data on operatlons and number of based but which wcl~ld influence the development of avlatlon In alrcraft alone, slnce ~t not only distingu~shes between that region.

alrcraft types and thew frequency of operation, but also takes Into account the Mferences In thew operatlng ex- C. D e g m d Utilization penses.

Alrport ut~l~zat~on IS generally measured In terms of annual operat~ons and the number of based alrcraft D. Alter,iative Modes Ne~ther figure, however, is an accurate reflection of the economlc impact of avlatlon at the airport. A multl-englne The service prov~ded by the alternatlve modes of alrcraft performing two operatlons at an alrfleld will proba- transportation has been coded on the alrport evaluat~on bly have greater Impact than a single seat alrplane doing sheets The polnt cons~dered for the evaluation 1 s the ten touch-and-go landlngs Ar attempt was made therefore nearest clty or town served by the alrport In questlon The to est~mate the actual economlc Impact of alr actlvlty at the facll~t~es and services are tihose use? :r interc~ty transpor- alrport Included In the VATS study1 tation, which include h~ghways. ~r:erc.ty buses, r a ~ l pas- senger servlces, and alr carrler servlces For most alrports included In the VATS study, data on the annual number of operatlons were obtalned from the In the sect~ons to follow, the codlng for alternatlve

FAA ' Vlrgln~a reglstrat~on forms prov~ded data on the num-

modes IS presented In the order In which the modes are ber and type of alrcraft based at each Vlrglnia alrport At presented In the evaluat~on sheets A label appearing In alrports for whlch the FAA prov~ded no est~mates for the many of them IS "d~rect~ons"-wh~ch refers to the number number of annual operatlons the VATS Plan consul tar:^' of d~rect~ons one can travel from the evaluat~on pant projection for 1976 were used, adjusted for the actual num- 1 highway^.^ In th~s se-t~on the cumber of dlrec- ber of alrcraft based at that alrport' At alrports w~th no hens one can travel from the evaluat~on pant has been based a~rcraft, all operatlons were assumed to have been coded for four classes of h~ghway. Ths h~ghway cladses conducted by a slngle englne alrcraft seatlng four are: All alrcraft based at an alrport were dlv~ded Into Int. (Intarstate)-Nat~onal syJtem of Interstate three categories. s~ngle-eng~ne seatong three or less.

and defense h~ghwaysAll such h~ghways are com- s~ngle-eng~ne seatlng four or more, and multl-engine The pletely grade spearated mult~lane and have total operatlons at an alrport were asslnned to the three geometric characterostlcs permlttlng 70 mph travel alrcraft types based on the number of each alrcraft type and tne relatlve frequency of operat~on by that type of Va. Art. (Virglnla Arterial)-A system of h~gh- alrcraft The number of operatlons performed by a~rcraft ways des~gnated by the Vlrgln~a Departmen! of Htgh- type was then mult~pl~ed by the average number of ways to prov~de multi-lane faclllt~es between polnts and In areas not served by the Interstate system Most 31 these h~ghways have U.S number des~gna- ' Vrrgrnra Arr Transportebon System Study. Phase Ill.

tlons (but do not lnclude all U S h~ghways) and are General kv~at~on Forecasts. Apr~l 1974 Dran prepared by Vlrgln~a typically grade separated w~thln urban areas and Dlvlslon of State Plannlng and Commun~ty Affairs, and Vlrgln~a have at grade lntersectoons In rural areps Dlvlston of Aeronautics. Rlchmond Vlrgln~a Va. Pri. (Vlrglnia Parimary)-Thos Includes all ' Atrport Fac~llttes Annual Record Stattst~cal Report. FAA

L . h~ghways not oncluded In the arter~al systems

flle updated to December 1974 Washlngton. D C pli!s all other Vlrgln~a numbered h~ghways des~g- 'Annual Arrcran Survey. Vlrgln~a Dlvtston of Aeronauttcs.

nated prlmary by the H~ghway Department H~gh- Rlchmond. Vlrgtn~a. Apr~l 1975 ways coded for th~s sect~on ~nclude only those not ' Prelrmrnary Dran of the Plan lor the Vrrgrnra Arr Transpor- paralleled by Interstate or Vlrgln~a arter~al h~ghways tarron System. Dlvls~on of Aeronrutlcs. Rtchmond. V~rgln~a. Dncem- ber 1974 Va. 8.c. (Vlrglnia Secondary)-Th~s Includes all Vtrglnla numbered h~ghways des~gnated as ser.

' Atr Trafltc Control Aavtsory Commlnee. Report ol the Arr ondary by the Vlrgln~a H~ghway Department Only TraWrc Control. Advrsory Committee Vol 2 Department of those h~ghwaysnot paralleled by the above three

Transportat~on. Washlngton D C . July. 1972 (Append~x G . Tables

G 1-4 used to determtne average annual hours flown) classes have been Included ' Wartord J J . Publrc Polrcy Towards General Avratron.

2 Bur.' lnformat~on coded In th~s section ~ncludes

Brooklngs Instttut~on. Washtngton. D C . 1971

the presence or absence of an agency stat~on where ' Department of Htghways Vrrgrnra 1974-O~icral State tlckets may be purchased and to whlch express and bag- Hrghway Map. Commonwealth of Vlrglnla Rand McNally. Chlcago.

gege may be checked The number of dlrect~ons served lll~no~s. 1974 and the number of buses a day are also Included In the llne Russelrs Offrcral Natronal Motor Coach Guide. Russell s des~gnated "by dlrect~on" 1 s Included the number of buses Gu~des. lnc , Cedar Rap~ds. Iowa, Volume 47. No 8. May 1975 comlng from each dlrect~on

TABLE F-ll

OPERATIONS BY AIRCRAFT TYPE (VIRGINIA, 1967 ar ii 1966)

No. of Aircraft Total Hrs. Flown Hourly Operating Cost Average Hrs./Operation Average percentage of opera- tions pppp ~- To estimats the total operations performed by each aircraft type the following procedure was used: [ .46n(S1)] N N(S1) =

[ .46n (SI) + .27n (52) + .27n(M)]

Where N - total operations at an airport

SI - Single engine aircraft seating three or less

S z - Single engine aircraft seating four or more

M - Multi-enpine aircraft

N ( ) - Operatio~ls performed by aircraft type ( )

n i ) - Number of based aircraft of type ( )

3 Rail Parrmgor.* Thls lnformatlon 1 s very s~mllar to PC Penn Central that glven for Intercity buses The number of direct~ons B & 0 Baltimore and Ohlo served. the number of trams per day, and the number of SCL Seaboard Coast Llne trams comlng from each dlrect~on. L b N Louisville and Nashv~lle CLlN Sl~nchf~eld 4 Rail FreigM.m~" As an lndlcatlon of potential rall NS Norfolk So1:thern passenger servlce and development potentla1 of the c9m- NF & D Norfolk, Franklin, and Danv~lle munlty. the nl~mber of dlrectlonsand level of fre~ght servlce 1 s glven In th~s section The flrst part lndlcates the ra~lroads The rall fre~ght servlce level is lndlcated after each servlng the evaluat~on pant The second pa lndlcates the rallroad by a parenthesized expression of the form (x.y) level of servlces rendered and the number of dlrectlons The Indicator x shows the level of servlce and y the number served for each level of servlce for each rallroad The L ' dlrect~ons the rall lines with x level of sewlce go. The x railroads are lndlcated by lnlt~als as follows.

levels of sevlce are lndlcated as follows.

Sou Southern

(1) 0 - 9 rnlll~on gross ton miles

N 8 W Norfolk and Western

(2) 1 - 4 9 mllllon gross ton miles

C 8 0 Chesapeake and Ohlo

(3) 5 - 9 9 rnlll~on gross ton mlles

R F 8 P Richmond. Fredrlcksburg and Potomac

(4) 10 - 19.9 rnlll~on gross ton mlhw

(5) 20 - 29 9 mlll~on gross ton mile6

(6) 30 - 39.9 rnlll~on gross tor m~les

(7) 40 - rnlll~on gross ton mlles

* Amlrak. AlCArnerlca Schedule. May 15. 1975 5 Urllrwr.'' lndlcated in this sectlon &re the number " U S Department of Transportatcon Rarl Service In the of alrllnes, the number of destlnat~ons reached per day Sy Midwest and Notihessr Region. Local Racl Sewcce Zone Reports.

direct flights from the airport, and the major destlnat~ons

Washtng.~n. D C . Volume II Part 2. February 1974

served from the alrport These major dest~nat~ons are lndl- " Official Railvay Juide. Norlh American Frecghl Service cated by the three-letter alrllne code. The common ones Edct~on. Nal~onal Ratlway Publlcatcon Company. New York. New are' York. Volume 107. No 5 MarchIAprcl. 1975 DCA Washington Nat~onal '' Official Airline Guide. (OAG). North Amerccan Edclcon.

Reuben H Donnelly Fubllsners. Oak Brook, Illcnocs. May 15, 1975 IHD Dulles ROA Roanoke cluding resales) and other receipts, and adjusting the ORF Norfolk resulting amount by the ne: change in f~nished products RIC R~chmond and work-ln-progress ~nventories between the beginning LGA Laguardia and end of the year "Percent rural farm" includec all rural EWR Newark res~dents llving on farms, f a n s being defined as places of PHL Philadelph~a 10 or more acres fro111 which sales of farm products BAL Baltimore amounted to $50 or more In the preceding calendar year or as places of less than 10 acres from which sales of farm 6. Dlalmnce to othrr Alrportm. The d~stance to the prcducts amounted to $250 or more In the preceding year.

nearest airport is indicated. The distance to other close air- "Persons per household" were obtacned by d~viding the ports is also included.

population in households by the number of household heads The percentages for manufacturing, white collar.

E. Domogrmphlc Data and government workers were based on the total number In order to understand the soclo-economlc envlron- of employed persons in the munlc~pal~ty. All other catego- ment surrounding each alrport, demographlc data were ries are self%xplanatory.

comp~led o? all n e ~ b y towns, cities, and count~es that Wlth the exception of "Value of all farm products were likely to use the alrport Standard Metropolltan sold," wh~ch was ohtamed from Divls~on of State Plannlng Statistical Areas (SMSAs)were also included 11 the facility and Community Affa~rs. Data Summary Series. (Richmond.

was located w~thln one The SMSAs used in these tabula- Va ). 1971-1972 all the demograph~c data were comp~led tlons have slnce been enlarged to Include add~t~onal coun- from the following U S Census publ~cat~ons Number of In- ties and cities, but data for these larger SMSAs were not habitants. Virginia. PC(1)-1448. (August. 1971); General ava~lable as th~s report went to press Social and Economic Characteristics, Virginia. PC(1 )-C48.

"Value added by manufacture" was der~ved by (Tebrllary. 1972); General Population Characteristics.

subtract~ng the total cost of materials (including mater~als. Virginia, PC(1)-&QB. (October. 1971). Detailed Charac- supplies, fuel, electr~c energy, cost of resales and terrstics. Virginia. FC(1)-048. (November. 1972): 1972 Con- miscellaneous rerelpts) from the value of shipments (In- sirs of Manutqcturers, Virgrnra, MC72(3)4?. (May. 1975)