Appendix B if known. Theelectrical
1.2.2 ELT Activation Methods on Existing ELT Units During the study period, contact was trade with three switch manu- facturers and one ELT manufacturer who makes his own switch. The follow- ing switch types have been identified as existing in cut-rent ELTs, and Appendix B if known. Theelectrical the type is listed in the table in configuration of the switch varies, in some cases the switch is a latch- ing type and in some it is momentary, The ELT manufacturer can choose then select a to measure the duration of the pulse electronically and momentary switch at the 5G level, or he can use a damped switch to mech- anically integrate the pulse duration and then either latch mechanically or electrically. All options have been used.
ROLAMITE TYPE The rolamite is a unique mechanical device, invented by Sandia Corporation, and is basically a means of suspending and guiding a to friction. As imp- movable mass with almost no loss of energy due Inc., a roller is wrapped lemented in the switch design by Technar, in a band of spring steel, which is shaped to provide a bias force toward one end of the switch. When the bias force is overcome by a sufficient external force, the roller moves along the band at a rate proportional to the force, until it contacts the opposite end of the device and opens or closes a switch. This is basically a velocity change sensitive device, although in use they are calibrated for a threshold force (G) and a time duration at a peak G. Technar now produces four rolamite switches for ELT use, all similar in construc- tion but set at four different levels. They are uni-directional switches.
SPRING MASS TYPE In these switches, a mass is restrained at one end of the switch by a spring, and moves toward the other end when sufficient force is applied. The rate of motion is modified by the spring and by gas or fluid damping if the mass and container are properly sized. This is a uni-directional device.
Aerodyne Controls, Inc., has produced three basic varieties of this switch in a gas damped configuration. The earlier switches had a high threshold and low damping and were very sensitive to vibration, leading to high false alarm rates. The current production switch has a lower threshold G force and higher damping, and appears to have a much lower sensitivity to vibration.
PENDULOUS MASS In one application, a mass on a pivot is restrained against a stop by a spring. When sufficient force is applied to overcome the spring, the mass troves and physically displaces a mechanical toggle switch. This is a uni-directional device..
a small mass is suspended In another pendulous mass configuration, the center of a cylinder.
at the end of a fine piece of spring wire, in causes the mass to move to A force perpendicular• to the axis of the wire eting a circuit. This de- one side and contact the cylinder wall, compl It is sensitive to forces in the ELT application.
vice is fluid damped in a 360° circle about its axis.
1-6 MAGNETIC MASS A ball is seated on a magnet and held by its magnetic force. When an acceleration force exceeds the holding force, the ball moves to the other end: of the container and closes an electrical circuit. This device is uni-directional in the ELT application.
MAGNETIC REED SWITCH A normally closed reed switch inside th:i case is held open by an external magnet, held to the case by magn ,^:tic force. When the magnet is moved away, by hand or by acceleration fo k ":^:, the switch closes.
FRANGIBLE SWITCH A mechanical or gas conducting switch in a glass envelope is located in aircraft where impact damage is expected (i.e. nose, wing tips, etc.).
Breaking of the switch envelope activates the ELT device. This system was not reported on any aircraft in this study, nor used on any commercially available ELT in U.S. civil aircraft; however, it has had military appli- cations.
1.2.3 ELT Switch Set Points Table 1.2.1 summarized the key ELT requirements of the existing spec- ifications. For comparison purposes, Table 1.2.2 lists the pulse data for the various combinations of crash sensor specifications and actual switches.
Data was not available for other switch types.
The pulse comparison chart is based on calculating the velocity change experienced by the switch when subjected to a pt , lse shaped as stated and with a maximum G as specified. The time duration is measured at the zero points on the curve. This gives a common measure for comparison, and points out the fairly wide variety of switches permitted and used in ELT units.
It does not consider the threshold G level of the switches, below which no activation will take place regardless of time duration or velocity change.
This figure is not readily available for any of the switches, but could be interpreted to be 5G under the current specification. In practice, it is usually lower, and may be as low as 2Gs in some models.
1.2.4 Current Improvement Activities In an attempt to correct some of the deficiencies of the ELT units, the RTCA convened another special committee, and they produced a new ELT Minimum Performance Specification, DO-168 (Ref. 5). This changes many requirements, including the specification for the activation sensor. Under contract to the FAA to support this RTCA committee (SC-127), Crash Research Institute prepared a study report recommending a velocity sensitive switch with a low "G" threshold (Ref. 7). The resultant DO-168 requirement is for a sensor to measure a velocity change of 3.5 feet per second when a thres- hold of 2G is exceeded. This was based on studies of accidents wherein the aircraft deceleration rate (G) and velocity change were determined. The specified sensor should detect more than 80% of all general aviation surviv- able crashes, if installed to measure the same forces that are applied to the habitable volume of the aircraft.
1-7 TABLE 1.2.2 PULSE COMPARISON Spec if i ed Switch Calculated Calculated Use Setting Pulse Shape 4V (fps) _ G ms Max DO-147 Shape un specified 7 16 Square 3.60 in spec, but square Sine 2.54 Min 00-147 wave implied 5 11 Square 1.77 Sine 1.25
Max RSS-147 (Sine specified) 7.2 16.5 Sine 2.70
Nominal RSS-147 7.0 16.0 Sine 2.54 No Go RSS-147 5.0 11.0 Sine 1.25 Technar Max 6.6 16 Square 3.39 Technar 6.5 15 Square 3.13 Technar 6.0 13 Square 2.51 Technar for Canadian Use 6.0 11 Square 2.12 However, the comnittee that wrote 00-168 did not include in their study the installation and mounting criteria, and this is now under consideration by another special committee, SC-136. It is hoped this report will be of value to SC-136.
A summary of the DO-168 requirements is also contained in Table 1.2.1.
1.2.5 NASA Experimental 406 MHz System As part of the SARSAT program, NASA has defined a new ELT configuration.
This ELi system block diagram is shown in Figure 1:4.2. The transmitter is being designed to a Goddard Space Flight Center "Specification for the Electronics for Use in Experimental 406 MHz ELTs and EPIRBs", GSFC-S-480-11, 1 September 78. This battery-powered unit includes a digital message generator, a modulator and transmitter on 406 MHz for satellite use, and a 121.5 MHz beacon for earth based search. It will also have an optional capa- bility to send a user selectable code message. When the user message feature is not used, the message will also contain an elapsed time code showing time since activation.
Performance specifications for this system, in the areas of activation and mounting, have not been defined. Cost benefit studies by The Inter- agency Committee for Search and Rescue (ICSAR) in the final report of October 1976 (Ref, 8), assumed an ELT "effectiveness" of 60 to 90" based on projections of knowledgable individuals. This wide range of estimates is an indication of the lack of confidence in the present ELT and the absence of a clear understanding of the potential of this new system.
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Some of these proved fruitful and several were of little value. A review of these efforts is provided here, with detailed results later in the reports 1.3.1 ELT Manufacturer Data Twenty-three letters were sent to all known addresses of ELT and switch manufacturers requesting information on their ELT units or G switch. Seven were returned "address unknown", four ELT manufacturers responded with information on their switches, and contact with three manufacturers was subsequently established. A list of currently known ELT and switch manufacturers provided in Appendix B. Only six are is believed to he still producing ELT units, but some others are still supporting their product in the field.
1.3.2 ELT Reliability Data FAA Service Difficulty Reports were obtained for the five-year period 6/1/74 to 6/1/79. A summary of these reports is contained in Table 1.3.1.
About one third of the reports relate to false activation, which is covered in the ARINC Study (Ref. 2). Over 40,0 of the reports relate to battery problems, while only 2a relate to failure to activate. Another 2 1 . 1 relate to broken antennas in service use and not as accident results.
The largest part of the battery complaints fall under units using lithium batteries, and the problem should be largely corrected by the current efforts in this area.
No other useful data on ELT reliability was obtained, and other studies have been started to fill this void.
1.3.3 NASA Langley Crash Testing This study effort was conducted in parallel with ELT testing being done at NASA Langley Research Center, and their development work on ana- lytical programs for Structural crash response prediction.
A discussion with LaRC personnel regarding the applicability of their computer program to ELT performance prediction has indicated that when a is possible particular structure is specified (i.e. a given airplane), it to determine the loads at particular points in the structure for various crashes. However, no generalized prediction can be made from these pro- grams for other aircraft.
LaRC also has tested many ELT units on full-scale crash tests and a special fixture containing the tail section of an aircraft.
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V* ^ J 1-11 i 1.3.4 Actual ELT Installation Data An attempt was to be made to determine how ELT units are actually mounted in the, field. No detailed installation data was obtained from the accident studies, but a tabulation of installation information was summarized from vendor data obtained either from FAA certification files or outside sources. This tabulation was provided, in part, to RTCA SC-136, and a more complete list is contained in Appendix C.
Additional studies are underway to obtain field data to determine if ELT units are actually mounted as recommended.
1.3.5 Candidate Activation Systems The following list of generalized activation concepts was used as the basis for the data collection phase of the study. Each concept was ex- panded with specific examples as shown, with no attempt made to evaluate their desirability or adequacy, but only to aid in selection of parameters to record in the data collection phase.
Internal (to ELT) Sensor I.
G Switch G/,& V Switch Attitude at Rest Pitot AP II. External Sensor - Single Point G Switch G/AV Switch Attitude at Rest Structural Continuity/Deformation/Frangible Switch Pitot AP Oil Pressure RPM Electrical Power Control Inputs Vibration III. Logic Based Sensing Simple Logic - Dual Input, both required (see list above) Complex Logic - Microprocessor based What can be sensed of attack, stall vane, Flight status: Pitot Q P, angle vibration Engine Operation: RPM, oil pressure, fuel pressure, electrical power, rate of change of these values Structural Conditions: Engine mounts, gear loads, wing attach- ments, nose crushing, attitude Loss of Sensor Input Time Between States of Flight and Rest The current data file is now available to evaluate these potential Sensor systems. About mid-study, Task II was added to this contract to evaluate Sensor Technology and this work will be reported. separately.
F .r+' 1-12 1.3.6 Literature Study A review of the technical literature on crash sensing was conducted during this systems analysis. The latest literature in various data banks was retrieved, and most of this will be reported in the Task II Sensor Study.
The revised Aircraft Crash Survival Design Guide, USARTL-TR-79-22B, which is now in preparation for the U.S. Army, was obtained for review in a preprint copy. All current NASA Langley test reports and ELT test data was reviewed.
The FAA conducted a Directed Safety Investigation (DSI) during 1975, and a copy was obtained for review.
All of the above data sources are integrated into the study report.
1.3.7 Aircraft Accident Data Base The primary analysis effort was to obtain detailed information on aircraft accidents in order to provide a data base against which to measure existing and proposed activation and mounting criteria.
The result has been the Crash Research Institute SARSAT Information System (CRISIS) data base. The computer data bases now in existence for civil accident data (U.S., Canadian, and ICAO, for example) do not con- tain any significant damage data--for the most part limited to a single entry (i.e. Destroyed, Substantial, Minor, None).
In order to select a data base with the highest potential for having good data available, the study was narrowed to the following type accidents: a.
Fixed-wing, general aviation aircraft under 12,5100 pounds gross weight.
b. U.S. fatal accidents occurring during 1977.
c. Canadian fatal and serious accidents occurring during 1976, 1977, and 1978.
This group is the source of the "BASIC" study group. It is a random sample with respect to cause, ELT data, location in North America, and quality of investigation. It is not random as to severity, but represents the most severe accidents only. The definition of fatal in this context is that someone dies in the event. The CRISIS data base contains about 90% of the U.S. accidents and almost 1000 of the Canadian accidents that were reported and investigated for this time and accident injury group.
The balance of the files were unavailable for study.
Some accident files were studied which were recorded as fata due to injuries to personnel outside the aircraft, a part of the formal defini- tion of an aircraft accident. These cases were eliminated from the BASIC group, since only injuries to persons inside the aircraft were considered in establishing the "injury index".
r ^r 1-13 The term "injury index", as applied to this data base means an assigned code for sorting based on the following definitions: FATAL = ALL OCCUPANTS OF THE AIRCRAFT DIED FATAL WITH SURVIVORS = AT LEAST ONE OCCUPANT DIED AND AT LEAST ONE OCCUPANT SURVIVED SERIOUS = NO OCCUPANT DIED, BUT AT LEAST ONE HAD SERIOUS INJURIES Injuries and deaths to persons outside the aircraft were not considered in assigning these codes.
In addition, two other subcategories of cases were obtained: 1, SAR Group, U.S. accidents for 1976, 1977, and 1978 where the U.S. Air Force Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) reported the ELT aided in the search.
2. Canadian cases for 1976 through 1978 where ELT data was avail- able regardless of injury.
The total data base consists of 1135 files, of which 916 are in the BASIC group. Table 1.3.2 shows the distribution of files by injury index, country and year.
TABLE 1.3.2 TOTAL DATA BASE CUNTENTS BY INJURY, COUNTRY, AND YEAR C.Y.
C.Y. 77 78 Country C.Y. 76 Injury Index 469 27 U.S. 23 Fatal' Canada 52 Fatal 11108 L-- Fatal w/surv. U.S. -4 12 —71 E 18 — Canada Fatal t,/surv.
3 3 U.S.
Serious 55 48 Canada Serious U.S. 8 Minor/None 51 59 Canada Minor/None BASIC Group ,`, Boxes 1.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT Chapter two covers the accident data collection effort, data base computer program, and analysis routines. The codes necessary to inter- pret the data are contained in chapter two, and the data collection form is contained in Appendix E. All computer output data tables referred to in this report are contained in chapter seven.
^!^^ 1-14
Chapter three attempts to
Chapter three attempts to describe the general aviation fixed-wing accident, based on the data collected. It is described overall, and by general types of aircraft.
Chapter four discusses the ELT data in the file from several view- points. five manufacturers of ELT's were represented by more than 10 entries in the file, and these types were reviewed individually. ELT data was also examined by aircraft category to see if any distinct diff-
aeparate studies of ELT units destroyed in the
erences are apparent.
crash and ELT units that activated are also contained in this section.
Chapter five reviews several areas of special concern. It contains a comparison of several subsets of data in the file and special studies.
Chapter six contains the general conclusions and specific recommen- dations developed as a result of this study.
1-15 2.0 DATA COLLECTION AND DATA BASE 2.1 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 2.1.1 Encoding of Accident Data Accident data was placed in the CRI SARSAT Information System (CRISIS) data base in machine readable form through the following process: 1. A data encoding form w p s developed (See Appendix E) 2. A researcher analyzed the original government files including: a. Original data collection forms b.
The narrative report c. The photographs 3. The researcher quantified and transcribed this data onto the encoding forms 4. The data on these forms was encoded in machine readable format and placed in the CRISIS data base For the Canadian files, almost all of the data to be transcribed onto pages 1-4 of the encoding form was already available in machine readable form; and thus, were automatically transferred to the study accident data base. In order to minimize differ p ^o^,es in data analysis and interpretation, a minimum number of researchers were used for this task--one researcher encoded all of the data from the Canadian files, and two researchers encoded all of the U.S. (NTSB) files.
The bulk of the data collection effort was the interpretation of the photographic and narrative record to describe the aircraft damage in much greater detail. The aircraft was divided into twelve zones as shown in Figure 2.1.1, plus main gear, nose or tail gear, and each engine and propeller. Each zone or component was described by the Location, Deformation, and Attitude codes shown in Table 2.1.1.
Every attempt was made to standardize the data collection, and each of the research assistants were personally supervised by the principal investigator during their first few case studies, and some of their work was later checked against independent sources for accuracy.
[{i' 2-1
T
N. Nose --comp or engine/fwd of cabin bulkhead A. Cockpit--instrument panel to back of first seat B. Cabin- -back of first seat to rear cabin bulkhead C. Aft fuselage--tail cone from bulkhead to L.C. of horizontal T. Tail cone aft of horizontal R. Right wing from fuselage to mid-wing S. Right wing mid to tip L. Left wing from fuselage to mid-wing M. Left wing mid to tip H. Right horizontal G. Left horizontal V. Vertical tail and tail cone below it FIGURE 2.1.1 AIRCRAFT ZONES 2-2 While a large number of data elements were obtained, only the search data and damage data called for analytical judgement by the researcher--all the rest of the 4ata that was obtained was taken directly from the narra- tive or accident report form.
TABLE 2.1.1 CODES FOR DATA COLLECTION FORM LOCATION CODES 0 Unknown 1 Continuity of structure back to section A 2 Attached to next inboard section, but not back to A 3 Almost separated, most structural continuity gone 4 Separated completely DEFORMATION CODES O Unknown 1 Basically undamaged, minor dents and tears 2 Major dents, tears but still in near normal shape 3 Crushed/distorted/crumpled 4 Destroyed, pieces separated 5 Buried in wreckage/dirt/debris ATTITUDE AT REST (PITCH AND ROLL) 1 ± 30 degrees of upright/normal attitude in both pitch and roll 2 30 degrees - 90 degrees from normal in pitch or roll 3 90 degrees from normal (inverted) CONFIDENCE LEVEL IN DATA 1 Estimated/guessed from photo or text 2 Clearly shown in photo 3 Detailed data in report 4 Personally observed at scene The Canadian file normally contains specific search information (Appendix E, page 4) and specific ELT data (Figure 2.1.2). The NTSB form, however has only two questions on ELT and search. Figure 2.1.3 is extracted from NTSB form 6120.4, page 4 (9-72). In addition, the NTSB computer data file has one entry for ELT data with 10 possible answers, shown in Table 2.1.2. All additional data in the CRISIS data base was determined from narrative reports and appended police or other reports.
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INIr•u10- ► wu • uuafntcnw 1« +Ilruf Iw1t•1110. ► uf u.UU q•1«f 111rrw1 1 14101) rO IUNI'T10w rO/r•IU•C•rIUO.U1 ► Odlltcrfvf I%effcul !LT + ITOIIT•/LI{•.p1Od1lIpINI11/Crf VI/1.1110 TO rUNCTiON NOT INIT•LL10/NOT C•M/ID Nb1 C !LT Ac"VATI .r Tlv. Ir ON Y•wWL •111011•TIC • 010 NOT ...
ELT LOCATION, C•fIN ^. I+1 A+ Dr •INCR AI T ^, ^ Ofl1 ► M COCNIIT I«r•^I+ , &AUTOY•TIC ELT "Pt Id1+10 h^4+fON•l Al, All rl ^. • ! ICT.,I r INIUFIICIINr O TO •CTIV • TI ► NOI/N INiT•LL • tI01Y I ANTINw. IMIMf N Or$ IM LT "IC•L D•,1.01 IN CRAM( R/NO/IN Y•INTIITANCi NOT 6W TCld0 ON NOT EFFECTIVE KASON 9019LOING IIT MIC,•61 IM9tCNID O// h CLSSw IfIN D•Y•GI /INILDINOIT "*"IN /NONTID IM•TII ► IVIIY041pN
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ELT FLT ' iu~A CT+JW M00EL 1.1 FIGURE 2.1.2 CANADIAN INVESTIGATION FORM QUESTION ON ELT FIGURE 2.1.3 NTSB INVESTIGATION FORM QUESTIONS ON ELT AND SEARCH 2-4 pf#^ it TABLE 2.1.2 CODED ANSWERS AVAILABLE FOR THE SINGLE ELT ENTRY IN NTSB COMPUTER FILE Operated - Used in locating A/C Operated - Not used Not Used - Not armed Used Not - Separated from antenna Not Used - Battery malfunction Not Used - Other malfunction/failure Used Not - Impact/fire damage Not Used - Operation unknown Not Installed Not Applicable/Insufficient Impact
Unknown /Not Reported
Subsequent to the basic data collection in Washington and Ottawa, additional data was obtained on some California accidents on a visit to the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) California Wing Headquarters.
2.1.2 Development of the Statistics The reader should bear in mind that the statistics presented
in this
report have been generated by a complex sampling process, much of which was not under the control of the CRISIS research team. The overall process may be seen as follows: 1. General aviation aircraft are operated in the U.S. and Canada each year, this is the "population".
2. The subset "Fixed-Wing", and specific years were selected, a sub-population.
3.
A certain subset of 2. is involved in accidents.
4.
A certain subset of 3. are investigated, depending on severity, location, injury, availability of investigators, and other pol- itcal and practical considerations. In the U.S., only fatal accidents are investigated in depth. In Canada, serious acci- dents are included.
5. A certain subset of 4. was available for study for CRISIS. Some cases were out for study by other people, or being reproduced for lawyers, etc. This effect is not random, but is biased against the more interesting and more severe accidents. This is the sample of the sub-population 2.
Therefore, a particular statistic (e.g. the number of brand X ELTs installed) is reliably only to the extent that the above factors are ran- dom with respect to brand X ELT. The user of this report is cautioned to consider these constraints when applying the statistics in this report to the population 1. above.
I . .
2-5 I
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However, CRISIS is still the best data available to answer the questions raised by the systems analysis task. Valid conclusions can be obtained when normal precautions are taken.
Within the data base, certain questions are subsets of other questions, based on the real world situation and the question form.
Figure 2.1.4 is a representation of the relationship of ELT questions on page 6 of Appendix E.
2.1.3 Confidence in the Data Although the CRISIS data base contains 1135 files, and the BASIC set is 916 files, some questions may exist as to how representative these data el.ements really are. The quality of investigation by the original field investigators is unknown, therefore, some error is possible due to careless- ness or poor investigation. The damage data was taken from photos wherever possible, and from narrative descriptions when necessary. Canadian files generally have many photos as specific requirements have been established.
No similar photographic requirement exists in the U.S., and over 180 cases, not counting those where wreckage was not recovered, have 3 or less photos of the wreckage.
As will be described, and specifically to minimize the effect of miss- ing data. calculations of percentages in the damage tables were made as per- cent of cases with data in the given field, unless otherwise stated. This is based on the assumption that the absense of photos or data was random with respect to damage, and that the sample obtained was representative of all similar accidents.
While the case selection for the BASIC file is random as far as ELT data is concerned, this is not true of the ALL file. Even within the BASIC set, however, it is possible that some elements are recorded with a bias.
For example, a major search is more likely to be reported than a short one, and an ELT that aids is more likely to be documented than one that is des- troyed in the wreckage of an accident with no search needed. An ELT in a readily accessible part of the aircraft is more likely to be documented, compared to one that requires tools for access. It is therefore necessary to approach this data with caution, drawing useful conclusions where the data seems strong, and proceeding with due caution where samples are small or bias is likely.
CAUTION Caution should be used in extrapolating detailed conclusions where the sample size is small, which is the case for any specific ELT or any specific aircraft make and model.
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m a_ s N O J d L ^ W t ^ L ^ G C u L D = L t r 0 ^ ^ c a ^ A ^+ u a :+ a+ ¢ Y ,c d T N ^ t 2-7 In the specific case of the aircraft section coded T, for tail cone, the overall data base is very small owing to the fact that many aircraft did not have an identifiable tail cone. As a result, sample size for this area is small, even in the ALL file (see Table 7.7C). No detailed con- clusions should be drawn for any data in the T section of any data table.
Sample size was fairly large in the BASIC set; but in the case of some categories of aircraft (see Table 2.1.3), sample sizes are fairly small. No attempt has been made to establish statistical measure of sig- nificance for any data or comparison in this report. Regardless of their absolute accuracy or statistical confidence limits, this data represents a description of the real world with enough accuracy to draw careful conclusions and make recommendations in light of the problem statement upon which the study is based.
TABLE 2.1.3 MOST COMMON AIRCRAFT MAKE AND MODEL IN THE CRISIS DATA BASE Make and Model No. of Cases in ALL File PA-28 116 C-150 101 C-172 92 C-182 Bellanca (7ACA, 7ECA, 8ECAB) Bonanza, Debonair PA-18 C-185 29 PA-30 24 2.2 COMPUTER ANALYSIS A computer data storage program was developed, along with specialized data analysis routines for this study. Other correlations and data com- pari'sons are possible beyond the ones prepared for this report. The data base is organized in files, each file represents an accident and is identi- fied by a four-digit file number, which is the primary access number for any file. If a particular file is needed, and the file number is not readily known, the brief print can be reviewed by aircraft type, registra- tion number, or government file number.
2-8 C1",, The data base is organized into four major subsets: ALL - All files BASIC - The random group of severe accidents previously defined SAR - Those identified by RCC as having ELT help in finding the aircraft ELT = Those in which the ELT was recorded as aiding in the search in the accident file itself These subsets are overlapping.
Each file is individually coded as to whether it is in the BASIC or SAR group, and an injury index is appended as described in section 1.3.7. An NTSB or Canadian source code is also provided.
During the early phase of the study planning, a review of the general aviation fixed-wing fleet was prepared to facilitate analysis of groups of aircraft having similar characteristics that would relate to crash dynamics. Many features were reviewed, and the following were determined to have a high probability of influencing ELT activation and mounting factors.
Weight/Power Structural Design Passenger Load Specific "type codes" were assigned, and the number of aircraft in each category are shown in Table 2.2.1.
2.3 CRISIS DATA OUTPUTS The following printout formats are available for outputs of the data base. The first three are maintenance routines.
a. Runstream: Prints full file on a single page, some items coded and some in plain language.
b. Brief Print: Lists the files by our file number, with govern- ment file number, aircraft make and model and type and several other items. Can be printed in a number of different ways (i.e. by file number, by aircraft type, etc.).
c. Table 1: File size tabulations and some general ELT tabula- tions, plus a few general tabulations relating to weather, terrain, and location.
d. Table 2: ELT data by make and model, search data, photo data, and several miscellaneous items.
e. Table 3: Data on obstacles, fire, specific ELT information by make and model, and damage data by combination of Location and Deformation code vs. aircraft type code.
f. Table 4: This table summarizes ground contact and final rest attitude from the impact conditions on page 3 of the data collection form.
g. Table 5: This table summarizes final rest attitude data by aircraft category, and engine and propeller damage by com- bined location and damage code.
Tables 2 through 5 are designed to be run for the ALL, BASIC, SAR, and ELT subsets, not for any other random selected set.
2-9 TABLE 2.2.1 NUMBER OF CASES BY TYPE CODES TYPE NUMBER OF CASES CHARACTERISTIC BASIC CODE EXAMPLE ALL A Very light/home built Pitts 37 33 GW :^- 1200# B Light utility/trainer Piper Cub 282 225 Metal structure, 2-4 C-150
place
Cabin class, single C-172 607 482 C eng. unpressurized Cabin class, TP-210 0 0 D single pressurized eng.
E Cabin class, twin C-310 83 unpressurized Cabin class, twin 19 F C-421 21 pressurized Commuter 10+ pass. DHC-6 10 7 G unpressurized Commuter 10+ pass. 0 H Metro 1 pressurized J Unusual configurations, Ag Cat 70 64 C-337 (7 twin engine) agricultural, wooden structure, biplane rear engine, etc.
^• 2-10 h. Tally: This printout presents the damage data, fire data, attitude data and ELT data as both number of entries and percent. It is designed to be run for any set of IF/AND/OR
statements for any subset of the data base. Most of the
data in this report is presented in the TALLY format.
Match: Prints out the file number of all files that match i.
a set of IF/AND/OR statements.
The data tables in this report which are based on the tally outpu are normally presented
in two ways. The first is the damage table (see
Table 7.1A) which contains the summation of all Fire, Location, Deforma and Attitude codes of the set of data described in the title of the tab
This type table is always postscripted as A. Each group of codes is li
as a percent of data entries in that field, with blanks or unknowns not
counted. For example: Location 1 2 3 4 TOTAL = 100% Nose 38 0 30 32 The actual counts of data in this set were as shown on Table 7.iC Code 0 is defined as unknown.
Location 0 1 2 3 No Report Nose 27 340 0 262 285 221 All tables showing total counts are postscripted as C. Code 0 and No Report are combined, Tables with the postscript B contain specific ELT data (see Table 7.1B) for the stated subset.
All tables for a given subset carry the same basic identifier number. For example, the total file, or ALL set, has three tables presented.
Table 7.1A Percent tables of damage Table 7.18 ELT summation Table 7.1C Total count summation In most cases, the type C table is not presented, as comparisons from this raw data are very difficult.
The primary analysis emphasis is to describe the damage to the air- craft in enough detail to determine if an ELT located at a given point would: 1. Activate 2. Survive 3. Transmit a usable signal In addition, other possible crash sensing approaches should be able to be evaluated using this data. An overall estimate of ELT effectiveness should be obtainable from the data, given a specific ELT configuration.
2-11 3.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE GENERAL AVIATION ACCIDENT 3.1 OVERALL SUMMARY OF THE BASIC FILE 3.1.1 The General Aviation Fixed-Wing Accident Since the BASIC file constitutes a random set of accident cases from the viewpoint of ELT data, location in the U.S. and Canada, and quality of investigation, it should give a valid representation of the major general aviation fixed-wing aircraft accident. They are considered major accidents in this report due to the recorded level of occupant injury, since at least one serious or fatal injury occurred in each accident town occupant of the aircraft. This term should not be confused with official government defi- nitions.
The data is summarized in Table 7.2C which gives the total numbers of each entry, and Table 7.2A which is in percent of entries in a given field. The percent table is used throughout the body of this report to facilitate comparison.
The composite picture that emerges from this BASIC summary has a number of interesting features.
1. Ground fire occurs in 22% of the cases, but does not usually involve the whsle aircraft. The empennage is least often involved, being burned in only 9% of these BASIC accidents.
Almost all the fires are associated with fatal accidents.
2. Inflight breakup occurs in 6% of the accidents, all of which involved fatalities.
3. Inflight fire occurred in 10 cases (1%), 9 of which were fatal.
4. Nearly one third of all the aircraft came to rest inverted.
About one half were upright within 30 0 of normal.
Six percent of the aircraft were not recovered, most often 5.
because they were underwater.
3-1 6. The cockpit was severely damaged (Deformation codes 3 -5) in 82% of the cases, the cabin in 760, and the nose section in 910. The nose was undamaged in only 20 of the cases.
Fatal Accident Comparison in the BASIC File 3.1.2 Tables 7.15 and 7.16 show the damage data for the BASIC subsets, U.S. Fatal injury index, and Canadian Fatal injury index. The Fatal injury index shows that all occupants of the aircraft received fatal injuries. This data can be compared with Table 7.2 which is the full BASIC set and 7.14, Which is BASIC fatal.
The injury index "Fatal With Survivors" includes all accidents where at least one occupant was killed and at least one occupant sur- vived the accident. This data is in Table 7.17 for BASIC, 7.18 for U.S. BASIC and 7.19 for Canadian BASIC. The injury index "Serious" means that the most severe occupant injury was serious and there were no occupant fatalities.
A comparison of the Fatal and Fatal With Survivors groups (Tables 7.14 and 7.17) clearly shows the more severe nature of the accidents with no survivors. For a summary of this data, see Figures 3.1.1 and 3.1.2. However, it also shows that it is possible to survive an acci- dent that does severe damage to an aircraft. About 200 of the habitable areas were "destroyed, pieces separated" and yet someone lived through in fatal it. Fire also occurred about 170 of the time, compared to 27,0 1 cases, but the sections damaged are similar. Final attitude at rest is also similar.
In comparing the two national groups of fatal accidents, fire occurred in 300 of the U.S. fatals and 230 of the Canadian fatals, but the Canadian data indicates the fire affected more of the aircraft. Only empennage involvement is similar in both groups. Damage levels overall are more severe in the Canadian case, engines and propellers separate more often, and twice as many aircraft end up inverted, However, 110 of the U.S. accidents involve inflight breakup of the aircraft, and only 4 1 1 1 0' of the Canadian cases have this finding. There were a number of in- flight fires in the U.S. data, none in the Canadian.
Comparing the "Fatal With Survivors" on a national basis again shows the Canadian accidents are more severe--fire occurs twice as often, and more aircraft are inverted.
3.1.3 Fire Data in the BASIC File Table 7.38 is for the BASIC accidents with ground fire, which in- cludes 221 1 of the BASIC set. The destruction of the aircraft is very severe, with only 20 of the cockpits and cabins and 40 of the nose sections remaining in near normal shape. Only 23 p of the aft fuselage sections were still near normal, and half of the vertical and horizontal tail sur- faces were in near normal shape. (see Figure3.1.3) All but 13 of these accidents involved fatalities, and 40 were preceeded by inflight fire.
The wings separated and were heavily damaged in about 850 of these acci- dents. The overall damage level is more severe than the set of fatal accidents, but the aircraft was upright a little more often.
3-2
SECTION DAMAGE
SECTION DAMAGE
DATA SET: BASIC, Fatal Index Ref: Main Gear 19 Table 7014 6 7 - 6 7 Nose or Tail Gear 26 ;2
.a
Vertical Tail 44 % of aircraft where section indicated was basically undamaged (Code 1)
. 6 stain Gear 13
25 2a ;24 Nose or Tail Gear 's.9 Vertical Tail 23 % of aircraft where section was dented or torn (Code 2) Main Gear 61
67 68 69
;87 ' Nose or Tail Gear 59 Vertical Tail 32
33 33^
of aircraft where section was at least crushed (includes destroyed)(Codes 3 & 4) FIGURE 3.1.1 j .. .
3-3
SECTION DAMAGE
SECTION DAMAGE
DATA SET: BASIC Fatal with Survivors 7 Ref; Table 7.17 Main Gear 32 23 18 17 ' 24 : " "s Nose or Tail Gear 42 ,.16 Vertical Tail 68 ;X of aircraft where section indicated was basically undamaged (Code 1) 15 1 — 21 !, Main Gear 17 36 '26 36: 30 ;31 Nose or Tail Gear 13 Vertical Tail 19 14 19 ^r of aircraft where section was dented or torn (Code 2) Main Gear 46 t 41 5 46 463 Nose or Tail Gear 42
' r
Vertical Tail C/ of aircraft where section was at least crushed (includes destroyed)(Codes 3 & 4) FIGURE 3.1.2 .,#• .
3-4
SECTION DAMAGE
SECTION DAMAGE
BASIC y q ^
DpT $ T ; WitR% Troun d Fire 1 Ref: Table 7.38 Main Gear 6 :...:
1- 5 -: 9 : 0
s Nose or Tail Gear 14 Vertical Tail 32 32 32 of aircraft where section indicated was basically undamaged (Coded ) 3^ Main Gear 9
14 13 12 13
,2.
Nose or Tail Gear 6
15^
Vertical Tail l8
of aircraft where section was dented or torn (Code 2) Main Gear 79 -- 98 ;
75 ' 82;98 ^ 86 78
Nose or Tail Gear 78
Vertical Tail 49 t of aircraft where section was at least crushed (includes destroyed)(Codes 3 & 4) FIGURE 3.1.3 3-5 p.
Only one of the commuter -type aircraft (Codes G and H) was in- volved in fire on the ground, and this was a very localized fiee. The percentage of ground fire for the remaining type code groups is shown Table 3.1.1. Fire seems to be a major problem in the pressurized in twins. Table 3.1.2 shows ground fire involvement by aircraft type code and aircraft section.
The ELT data, Table 7.38B, indicates that the ratio of ELT in- stalled and not installed is similar to the whole BASIC group. However, the ELT is destroyed 59% of the time.
TABLE 3.1.1 FIRE DATA BY AIRCRAFT TYPE CODE AIRCRAFT TYPE CODE GROUND FIRE % INFLIGHT FIRE % A Very light/home built 21 0 16 0 B Light utility/trainer C Cabin class, single engine, unpressurized 21 0 Cabin class, twin, unpressurized 29 5 E F Cabin class, twin, pressurized 53 21 J Unusual configurations 39 0 TABLE 3.1.2 GROUND FIRE INVOLVEMENT BASIC SET BY AIRCRAFT TYPE CODE DATA AS % C" CASES WITH FIRE Aircraft Type Code Aircraft Zone A B C E F J Cockpit 100 97 84 68 64 68 91 72 Cabin 86 97 84 86 95 71 68 55 72 Nose 55 52 Aft Fuselage 86 78 60 52 Inbd. Wing 100 89 65 76 45 Rt.
Rt. Otbd. Wing 86 54 38 60 27 78 73 64 Lt. Inbd. Wing 86 63 76 57 38 76 52 Lt. Otbd. Wing 86 45 29 40 Rt. Horizontal 71 59 28 45 Lt. Horizontal 86 31 28 36 40 Vertical 86 54 30 28 36 44 • r 3-6 r.
3.1;,4 Temperature Data in the BASIC File Table 3.1.3 provides temperature comparisons of various subsets in the BASIC file. It can be seen that in 13% of the cases where tempera- ture at the accident was reported, that temperature was below zero. How- ever, that changes to 9% for U.S. fatal accidents, and 24% for Canadian fatal accidents.
At the high end, 7% of the U.S. fatal accidents and zero Canadian fatal accidents occurred over 31°C.
Comparing ELT performance, the subset [ELT installed, armed, activated] and [ELT installed, armed, not activated] shows a shift toward the extremes, with more cold and hot temperatures in the non-activated cases. Additional analysis on the few cases involved would be required to determine if temp- erature played a part in the non-activation.
3.2 VERY LIGHT/HOME BUILT AIRCRAFT (TYPE CODE A) Data for this aircraft category is in Tables 7.3. Although the sample is size (33) small, some differences can be seen in the data, which is con- sistent with expectation. The nose, cockpit, and cabin damage is slightly more severe than the BASIC set, the aft fuselage damage is slightly less severe. Fire occurs in almost the same percent of accidents, and seems to involve more of the aircraft. Inflight fire did not occur. Final attitude data is similar. Engine separation occurs in nearly the same ratio, but engine and prop damage is more severe if the prop is damaged.
However, more props are undamaged.
3.3 LIGHT UTILITY/TRAINER AIRCRAFT (TYPE CODE B) Data for this aircraft category is in Tables 1.4. Ground fire occurs less often in this group, but is more severe and nearly always involves the cockpit and cabin. Inflight breakup occurs less often and no inflight fires occurred. Cabin, cockpit, and nose damage is about the same--aft fuselage damage is slightly less severe. Tail damage is also reduced somewhat, as is engine and propeller damage.
This group makes up 25% of the BASIC file, and in general is quite similar to it. A slight reduction in the number of aircraft within 300 of normal attitude is noted, shifting into the Code 2 group. The same percentage are inverted.
3.4 CABIN CLASS, SINGLE ENGINE (TYPE CODE C) This set makes up 53% of the BASIC file and is described in Tables 7.5.
The percentage of U.S. cases is the same as for the BASIC group. Inflight breakup and ground fire occurs nearly as often--fire damage is about the same except for a slight reduction in tail fires. Final attitude data is also similar. Overall, no significant difference is noted.
3-7 s O p ^D N I ^ N N ^1 V L E f. N O W) r a' O r Ln r.. O M n O M N N M O M o of .- ^ r o n w o ms o r ,d
O r r N M N f7 r- N
M M N r- r- N O N M ^ N M M M M M C M M N N O r w I O I M r w w t0 O^ 1n r ^ Y i W LL7 i M r N N N N N i Ln W Z ^ O 4 N JJ11 c C I^f ¢ D1 LO Ln O W a 0 + p p ., N N. sf 1 M U ^ Li W W r Lbi cc o n ^ c LL ► t - . c s t o ~ W L y I`7 CD to N ?t M N n M N N S O LT ..
uj a t ti L N c L i + O + n. e O er H M .- .^ O M N N N a M M N .^ O O O .- .^ O O C O M al ^j r m o m v u 60 u u u 4 ut S- I Li ? O C LL LL C ?
V) H 40 10 J L i0 4 U. m m J d LL t- LL U W Li W ^ V N w{n V = .V. . .. 2 2 u r0 - yy n .G U N Ll C Ln Ln N N Ln N t WJ A Q d Ln C d Q Q lz 3-8 3.5 UNPRESSURIZED TWIN S! (TYPE CODE E) Tables 7.6 cover these 83 eases. Inflight breakup and ground fire are up, as are the percentage of inflight fires. Fire damage increases in the wings and reduces in the cockpit/cabin area, as would be expected.
Fire in the tail is also reduced.
Cockpit, cabin, and nose damage is slightly more severe, and aft fuselage and tail damage is considerably more severe. Wing damage in- creases markedly, with 80% being crushed or separated into pieces.
3.6 PRESSURIZED TWINS (TYPE CODE F) Table 7.7A indicates that the 19 cases of this type experienced a 16% inflight breakup and 53% ground fire involvement. Inflight fire occurred in 4 cases (2l 1 %). This type aircraft is characterized by a much stronger fuselage to accept pressurization loads. However, accident damage was much more severe in all parts of the aircraft. The aft fuse- lage survived in basically the original shape in only 2311 of the cases, and the vertical tail in only 39',V 1 . Engine and propeller damage is also more severe.
Final rest attitude is not significantly different, with somewhat less in the intermediate position, and a wider range of percentage be- tween parts in the inverted condition.
3.7 COMMUTER-TYPE AIRCRAFT (TYPE CODE G AND H) Sample size was very small here, with only seven cases shown in Table 7.8A. In general, these were severe accidents, but the numbers are too small to draw any meaningful conclusions.
3.8 UNUSUAL AIRCRAFT (TYPE CODE J) The 64 cases in this group are summarized in Tables 7.9. These aircraft include agricultural types, centerline thrust twins, and any other aircraft that did not fit the other groups.
Ground fire occurred more often than average, but no inflight fires occurred. Inflight breakup was the same as BASIC. Fire damage is some- what less severe, as is breakup of the aircraft. Deformation is generally less severe, and attitude is less likely to be Code 2, but nearly the same percentage inverted.
Prop #2 damage is less, but 6 of the 7 twins are Cessna 337 with front and rear engines.
3-9
I
-s
r
3.9 LANDING GEAR Tables 7.39 and 7.40 compare single-engine, fixed-gear aircraft by tricycle and tail wheel configuration. The tail wheel aircraft burn more often and turn inverted less often, but other damage data is very similar.
3.10 WING LOCATION Tables 7.41 and 7.42 compare high , wing and low-wing aircraft in type Code C (single-engine cabin class) aircraft. Nigh-wing type end up inverted more often, have considerably fewer inflight breakups, and slightly more fires than the low-wing types. The wings come off the high-wing aircraft a little more often, but basically the damage is similar.
3-10 4.0 ELT DATA 4.1 GENERAL ELT DATA IN THE BASIC FILE 4.1.1 Installation and Arming data for the Table 7.2B contains the ELT BASIC data set. In these 916 accidents, an ELT was recorded as installed in 651 1 and as not in- 0, stalled in 14%. ELT data was not available in 21% of the files examined.
installation data was reported, the was installed in 8211 When ELT ELT of the cases.
Of the 593 installed were recorded as armed, and 811 ELT units, 53 Z 10 as not armed. This gives a reported ratio of 87 11 armed when data was available. While the number not armed would seem high and hard to under- stand, it should be remembered that it is generally recorded by an in- vestigator who arrives on the scene long after the police, search, or fire teams do. It is possible that the position of the switch observed by the investigator is different from that at impact due to attempts to ELT off after search completion, tampering by observers or an turn the attempt to turn everything off to secure the wreckage. This subject is explored further in analysis of the SAR set (section 5.2).
4.1.2 ELT Usefulness Activation is recorded as occurring in 38;5 of the installed ELT units, and no activation in 25%. The activation ratio is defined as ELT Activated Yes ELT Activated Yes + No In the BASIC set, this figure is 600/0'.
4-1 l The ELT Destruction Ratio is defined as: ELT Destroyed/Damaged By Impact ELT Installed For the BASIC group, this is 231. Some of this data is summarized in Table 4.1.1.
4.1.3 ELT Activation Versus Destruction Table 7.226 covers the 223 cases of ELT activation, and Table 7.236 covers the 135 cases where the ELT was destroyed by impact. Note the overlap of 11 cases where the ELT activated, but was destroyed or damaged.
The activated units were reported as aiding in 82 searches this in subset. However, comparison of the search required group (Table 7.46) shows 13 cases were reported as aiding in a search when no search was re- quired. (see section 5.2) Seven percent of the units were reported to be in the cabin and cockpit, and this represents 20% of all reported locations. Location data was rarely reported.
In the "ELT destroyed" group, search was required in 311 of the cases and not required in 611 of the cases. The was again reported to be in ELT the cockpit/cabin in 7°0 of the total cases, and in the aft fuselage in 120.
The damage tables for ELT activated and ELT destroyed are Tables 7.22A and 7.23A and is summarized in Figures 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. The damage is some- what less severe for the ELT activated set than the whole BASIC set. In particular, the cabin, cockpit, and aft fuselage area is in slightly better shape overall. Fire occurred in only 131 of these cases, and inflight breakup in only 20. The distribution of fire damage is similar. Final resting attitude is nearly the same.
However, in the ELT destroyed set, fire occurred in 561 0 0 of these cases, and the tail of the aircraft was more often involved. Damage overall is much more severe, with only 4 Z of the cockpit and cabin areas in near nor- mal shape, and only 18" of the aft fuselages less than crushed. These air- craft were inverted only half as often as the average, 111 had inflight breakup, almost 1001 prop bending, and more severe landing gear damage.
The portion of the aircraft with smallest percentage of "destroyed/pieces separated" was the vertical tail, and it was coded this way 311 of the time.
4.1.4 U.S. Versus Canada In reviewing the ELT data in fatal accidents only, Tables 7.158 and 7.16B for U.S. and Canada, and Table 7.14B for the BASIC group, a much greater percentage of U.S. accidents had the ELT recorded as installed, but both had the same percentage of "not installed" responses. Over half of the Canadian units were reported as activated, while less than one-third of the U.S. units were so reported. However, the activation ratios were 66% for Canada and 571 for the U.S. Forty percent of the activated units aided the search, with initial alerting being most significant in Canada in and final homing more important in the U.S.
4-2
SECTION DAMAGE
SECTION DAMAGE
DATA SET: BASIC ELT Activated Ref: Table 7.22 ^5 Main Gear 26 129' 12 10 Nose or Tail Gear 36 Vertical Tail 62 N of aircraft where section indicated was basically undamaged (Code 1) Main Gear 19 Nose or Tail Gear 15 Tail 27 of aircraft where section was dented or torn (Code 2) Main Gear 44 77--- 5568 .59 55 57 Nose or Tail Gear 46 J Vertical Tail 12 13 , ll LV of aircraft where section was at least crushed (includes destroyed)(Codes 3 & 4) FIGURE 4.1.1 4-3
SECTION DAMAGE
SECTION DAMAGE
DATA SET: BASIC ELT Destroyed 1 Ref: Table 7.23 , 2 Main Gear 11 5 5 ..
1 5 i 8 Nose or Tail Gear Vertical Tail 30
^ I i
27 i. 27 % of aircraft where section indicated was basically undamaged (Code 1) J _ I Main Gear 5 1 1 1 1 1 20 18 122 13 Nose or Tail Gear 6 Vertical Tail 22 n of aircraft where section was dented or torn (Code 2) Main Gear 78 Nose or Tail Gear 82 Tail 49 r v of aircraft where section was at least crushed (includes destroyed)(Codes 3 & 4) FIGURE 4.1.2 c V' 4-4
s
k Over one-half of the Canadian cases required a search, while only 26 0 m of the U.S. cases indicated this need.
In both groups, about one-quarter of all ELT units were destroyed or damaged by impact. About 40 of the Canadian units and 8% of the U.S.
units came out of their mounts.
A similar comparison can be made of the fatal with survivors accidents and the serious group, and the results are summarized in Table 4.1.1.
TABLE 4.1.1 ELT DATA IN THE BASIC FILE BASIC BASIC FATAL WITH BASIC BASIC FATAL SURVIVORS SERIOUS 916 629 146 141 1. Cases in File 593 441 106 ELT Installed 46 2.
65 70 33 % Installed 2 73 3.
ELT Not Installed 128 105 12 4.
14 8 8 w Not Installed 4 17 5.
6. Installation Ratio + 4 82 81 90 81 223 145 Activation Yes 48 30 7.
8. Activation No 149 114 26 Activation Ratio7 60 56 65 77 9.
7 8 Number Destroyed 135 122 10 3 10.
Destruction Ratio 23 28 9 7 11.
38 32 2 12. Number Out of Mount 4
1 2 * 6 7 4
13. o Reported Out of Mount 4 57 9 1
14. No. Antenna Disc. Cab a 47
10 8 2 15. ro Antenna Disc Cable 11
2 *
316 215 63 38 16. Number Armed 48 6 2 17. Number Not Armed 40 87 84 91 95 18. Armed 6 E6 7 * Row 13 and 15 are considered lower limits of this statistic since an out of mount condition or cable disconnect condition is more likely to be reported than the normai condition.
4-5 it 4.1.5 Compliance With Regulations Regarding ELT Use An attempt was made in each case studied to determine whether an ELT was required to be installed for the accident flight, based on the of the accident. This status national regulations in force at the time was determined in 77% of the BASIC file.
Table 4.1.2 shows that there was a substantial non-compliance with that 8% of those aircraft in the BASIC group that the ELT regulations, in In those BASIC cases where required ELT installations did not have them.
the requirement was determined, 19% of the aircraft were not required to ELT units installed.
have ELTs, but over one-third of these aircraft did have TABLE 4.1.2 COMPLIANCE WITH REGULATIONS REGARDING ELT USE ELT Not Reauired ELT Required ELT Installed Not Installed ELT Installed Not Installed 44 92 83 ALL 670 529 50 81 BASIC 44 Within the BASIC group where ELT installation status was established, consistent with the BASIC search data 820 had an ELT installed. This is (Table 7.468) where 80,0 of the accidents requiring a search had an ELT installed, 14% did not, and 6% were unreported.
4.2 ELT DATA BY MAKE AND MODEL IN THE BASIC RILE of the BASIC group.
4.2.1 The ELT manufacturer was identified in 221 cases Only five manufacturers were identified more than 10 times and together these accounted for 192 (87%) entries.
NOTE These five groupings are reviewed in this section, but the sample size is small, so caution must be used in extrapolating this data to the total general aviation population.
Within each grouping are all types of ELTs produced by the stated manufacturer, regardless of their different characteristics, switches, mountings, etc.
4-6 4.2.2 Sharc 7 Tables 7.31A and 7.316 cover the 66 cases with the Sharc 7 ELT.
This unit was often provided with a Velcro attachment W , is made of a plastic material, has provisions for an external antenna, either attached or remote.
The data indicates it is most often installed in the aft fuselage; it activated in about half the cases where this data was obtained, and was destroyed in about 220 of the cases. It was more common in Canada (590) than in the U.S.
4.2.3 Narco ELT-10 This unit appeared 43 times, as shown in Tables 7.32A and 7.326.
It is normally provided with a metal mount plate, with the ELT held to the mount by a metal strap. It is mounted with its long axis longitudi- nal and is provided with an antenna connector for external or portable antenna.
The data indicates it is most often installed in the aft fuselage; it activated in 620 of the cases where data was obtained, and it was destroyed in about 190 of the cases.
4.2.4 Garrett Manufacturing, Ltd.
This unit has had several variations, including one designed for installation in the vertical fin. The data is inadequate to break down this listing by individual model. Tables 7.33A and 7.336 provide the data on 49 cases with these ELTs. They are most often installed in the aft fuselage, and are much more common in Canadian cases.
Over 600 of the installed units were recorded as activating, with an activation ratio of 790, and 200 were destroyed on impact.
4.2.5 Pointer Several versions of the Pointer unit have been produced by Aero Electronics Corporation and its successors. The early Pointer II was a 2" diameter tube with integral antenna designed to be mounted just inside the skin of the aircraft. The later units are rectangular and have an antenna connector for external or portable antennas. No discrimination between units is possible with this data.
Three-quarters of these cases are Canadian, and while half the units are reported to have activated, only 1 aided in the search by providing initial alert. No ready explanation of this lowrumber is available in the data. Nineteen percent were destroyed and none were reported out of mount.
Tables 7.34A and 7.346 cover these units.
4.2.6 Emer g ency Beacon Corporation Several versions of the EBC unit are available, ranging from a small unit with external switching to a unit with voice capability. All are designed for cockpit mounting with integral whip antenna. All are claimed to withstand 1000 Gs.
4-7 Of the 18 cases reported, 11 activated for an activation ratio of 73 %.
It was most often used for final homing rather than alerting. It is the only unit of the five specifically designed to have its antenna inside the aircraft.
All the reported activations were automatic, and the 4 non-activations were all explained by damage and dead battery. Tables 7.35A and 7.358 provide the data.
4.2.7 Comparison Between the Five Units ELT The ELT Comparison (Table 4.2.1) shows some of the differences between these five ELT manufacturers. As expressed earlier, caution must be used in inter p reting these com parisons due to the small sam p le size.
The damage data is very similar in the cockpit and cabin areas for all five units. There were some differences in fire and aft fuselage data.
ELT Comparison in the ALL File 4.2.8 These same five ELT manufacturers were the only ones to have more than ALL file, and they accounted for 334 of the 373 cases 10 units in the where the manufacturer was known. Tables 7.24 through 7.30 contain data on these units.
Since case selection beyond the BASIC file was not random with respect to ELT data, but in fact was based on the presence of ELT data and is most- ly Canadian, no comparisons can be made between units from this data.
Tables 7.24 and 7.25 were prepared, covering these five ELT manufact urers, but dividing on the basis of the U.S. and Canadian data. Canadian data constituted 69% of these files since they are from the ALL set and that set includes all Canadian cases with ELT data for three years.
The U.S. data has more fire, more inflight breakup, generally more severe damage, more ELT units destroyed, and a 5% greater number of search pertinent responses. All battery date data is in the U.S. file. Most location data is from the Canadian files. Final homing is much more ELT important in the U.S., possibly indicating greater use of D.F. equipment by the U.S. search community. Initial alerting occurs more often in Canada, possibly indicating better coverage by ground or airborne receivers, or less alerting by other means. Further study of the search data would be required to determine these issues.
ELT DATA BY AIRCRAFT TYPE CODE 4.3 4.3.1 Very Light/Home Built Aircraft (Type Code A) The data in Table 7.36 is very sparse, with only 5 installed ELT units in the 33 cases (15 0 //0). Only 10 of these accidents had a require- ment for ELT since a major exception to the rule is that home built and local training aircraft do not need ELT units. Three searches were re- quired, and the ELT only aided in one. Search data was not obtained in half of the cases.
Both ELTs that did not activate were destroyed in the crash.
4-8 6f TABLE 4.2.1 GROUP ELT COMPARISON IN BASIC Pointer Sharc Garrett Narco EBC # of Units Installed 65 49 42 18 1.
of Cases in U.S. 27 11 21 17 '2. # 41 22 49 94 3. % U.S. (2/1) 25 30 21 11 8 4. # Activated 24 8 13 4 4 5. # Not Activated 51 79 62 73 67 6. Activation Ratio/ 4% 14 10 8 3 3 # Destroyed 7.
22 20 19 17 8. O Destroyed (7/1) N 5 6 2 9. # Out of Mount 7 7 12 9 6 1 # Aid in Search 10.
9 8 1 1 Initial Alerting 5 11.
33 29 27 9 12. Searches Required 13. % Cockpit Severe Damage 75 83 84 88 72 (Codes 3, 4, 5) 14. % Cabin Severe Damage 78 71 78 75 75 15. % Aft Fuselage Severe Damage 35 51 54 33 42 16. % Ground fire 20 16 14 11 0 4-9 f, 4.3.2 Light Utility/Trainer Aircraft (Type Code B) The data in Table 7.4B is similar to the BASIC file. An ELT was required in 70% of these cases, and was installed in 58%, slightly less than the BASIC set. Forty-two percent of these units activated and 16% were destroyed, for an activation ratio of 64%, slightly better than BASIC.
4.3.3 Cabin Class, Single Engine (Type Code C) The ELT data in Table 7.5B is nearly the same as the BASIC group, just as the almost identical damage data. A total of 74°0 had an ELT installed, and only 7 % were reported as not installed. About the same ratio were armed and not armed, and about the same ratio activated and did not activate. A search was required in 38% of these cases--up 8% from BASIC. The same 23% were destroyed.
4.3.4 Unpressurized Twins (Type Code E) Table 7.66 indicates that these aircraft have an ELT installed more often than the whole BASIC group, but they activate slightly less often.
The activation ratio is 53%. A search is required in 29% of the cases, which'is almost the same as the BASIC group.
The ELT was destroyed in 25% of the cases where it was installed.
4.3.5 Pressurized Twins (Type Code F) The much more severe accidents to this type aircraft took their toll on the ELT, as almost half of the installed units were destroyed.
Only 25% of the installed units activated with an activation ratio of 33%. Table 7.78 summarizes this data.
This group did have a high ratio of installed units, at 84%, with no negative replies.
4.3.6 Commuter Type (Type Code G or H), See Table 7.8B for these aircraft. Six of the seven aircraft were reported tohave an ELT installed, and half of them were destroyed. Of the 3 which activated, one aided in search and one was underwater.
4.3.7 Unusual Aircraft (Type Code J) Table 7.9B shows a very low ratio of installed units, with only 27% installed and 55% not installed. Only 36% were required to have an ELT, since agricultural use is exempted. However, six searches were required.
The one ELT that activated when a search was needed did its job. Twenty- nine percent of the installed units were destroyed.
4.3.8 Landing Gear In comparing the single-engine fixed-gear aircraft, the tail wheel types have an ELT installed less often, activate less often, and is des- troyed more often than the tricycle aircraft. The ELT aided in search almost 3 times as often in the tri-gear types. See Tables 7.39 and 7.40.
4-10 4.3.9 Wing Location Comparison of low-wing and high-wing aircraft (Tables 7.41 and 7.42) shows only minor differences in ELT data. ELT destruction identical, is the activation ratio is 66% for low wing and 58% for high wing.
4.4 ELT COMPARISON BY INJURY LEVELS IN THE ALL FILES Refer to Tables 7.10 through 7.13.
At the fatal injury level, an ELT was reported installed in 72% and not installed in 15% of the cases.. The ELT was armed in 53% and not armed in 8% of the installed units. The ELT activated in 380 of the cases where it was installed and did not activate in 23% of the cases, with an activa- tion ratio of 62%. The ELT was destroyed/damaged by impact in 25% of the cases where it was known to be installed. At least 7% of the ELT units came out of their mounts and at least 10% of the antennas were disconnected.
Batteries had expired in at least 4% of the cases. A search was required in 38.0 of the fatal group, or in 420 of the cases where search information was determined. The ELT aided 380 of the searches, most often in final in homing, but also in initial alerting. Ten cases involved the ELT being underwater.
When the injury index was fatal with survivors, few changes are noted.
The percent installed rises to 75 and the activation ratio to 69. The number destroyed drops to 8%, which is substantially lower.
When the injury level was serious, ELT installation was recorded as 36% yes and 8% no. Eighty-three percent of the installed units were armed and 4% were not. The ELT activated in 700 of the cases where it was in- stalled, and did not activate in 17% of those cases, with an activation ratio of 80%. It aided in about oop,-half of the searches that were required.
The criteria for inclusion of minor/none injury cases was the presence of ELT data in the file, or successful ELT search. Sixty-six percent of the installed ELT units were reported as armed and 48% of the installed units activated, while 36% did not. This results in an activation ratio of only 57%. Most of the non-activated were recorded as insufficient force to activate. Two units were recorded as destroyed by impact, one was underwater, and the other was burned. The ELT aided in about half of the searches, with initial alerting and final homing both important.
Table 4.4.1 summarizes some of the ELT data from these comparisons.
4-11 TABLE 4.4.1 ELT DATA BY INJURY IN ALL FILE (1135 Cases) Fatal' Fatal With Surv. Serious Minor/None # Cases 679 159 149 148 1.
ELT Installed 491 119 53 144 2. # ELT Installed 72 75 36 97 3. % Activated 188 59 37 69 4. # Not Activated 114 9 52 5. # 27 Activation Ratio 44* 5 80 6. 62 69 57 7. # Aid in Search 98 24 18 27 8. # Searches Required 255 47 34 49 9. # Destroyed 125 10 3 10. % Destroyed 25 8 6 1 4-12 5.0 SPECIAL AREAS OF STUDY 5.1 COMPARISON OF THE ALL AND BASIC FILES The study effort is focused on the BASIC file group since this contains the most nearly random set of cases, and focuses on the most severe accidents. The balance of the cases in the ALL file (219 cases or 19% of the total) are there specifically because of their ELT content.
Therefore, the ALL file is used for study of ELT information, and study of the less severe accidents. In no sense is the ALL file to be assumed to be statistically representative of the total U.S. and Canadian general aviation fleet, but it does contain nearly all the ELT data obtainable from the official accident reports in the general study group (see Table 1.3.1).
Referring to Table 7.1 for the ALL set and Table 7.2 for the BASIC set, it is seen that nearly all the fires occurring in the ALL group are part of the BASIC set (206 of 211), as are most of the inflight breakups (57 or 60). The percentage of U.S. and Canadian cases shifts only slightly, 63^ of BASIC and 59% of ALL files are U.S. data. However, nearly all the low injury cases are Canadian.
The Location and Deformation Tables reflect the different makeup of the file sets, but the final attitude data is almost identical in both groups. About 112 of all aircraft, whether intact or broken up, remain within 30 0 of upright, and about 1/3 end up inverted.
Over 93ro of all propellers are bent in the accident sequence, some- what more in the more severe BASIC set.
The ELT data is considerably different for these two sets of data.
This is expected due to the fact that the criteria for additional data beyond the BASIC set was the existence of ELT data or relevance in the case.
5-1 In the ALL file, 711 of the cases had an ELT installed, and 120, reported no ELT installed. Almost all the "no ELT" are in the BASIC set. Of the 807 reported ELTs, 58% were reported armed and 7% not armed. This is a ratio of 901 armed of all cases with an entry in this box. Of the 807 installed ELTs, 44% are reported to have activated and 25% to have not activated, or an activation ratio of 64%. This ratio drops to 601 in the BASIC file.
Of the 354 activated ELTs, 47% aided in the search, but this data is biased by the nature of the data collection plan. In the BASIC file, only 31ro of the activated ELTs (14% of the total installed) aided in the search.
Of the ELT problems noted in the ALL file, ELT destroyed/damaged by impact was the most significant, with 171 of all installed ELTs suffering this fate. This becomes 2310 in the BASIC set. Antenna cable disconnect occurs twice as often as antenna damage in both groups, with most of this data coming from the BASIC group.
Expired batteries were noted in 341 of the cases where battery data was reported, but some bias could be expected to occur since an expired battery is more likely to be reported than a good one. Five percent of all installed ELTs in the BASIC group recorded expired batteries, and seven percent of the ELTs that did not activate were reported to have had dead batteries.
Final homing and initial alerting were the most common reports of ELT usefulness, with voice communications being recorded in only 2 cases. Searches were required in about 40 1 V of cases where search data was obtained, but again this could be biased in that a search is more likely to be recorded compared to a non-search.
In cases where the temperature was reported, 1600 of ALL accidents occurred below 0°C, while only 131 of the BASIC cases were in that range.
(See Tables 5.1.1 and 3.1.3 for temperature data). Overall, there is little difference in temperature distribution between ALL and BASIC sets, except that in the BASIC set, a fatal accident is 3 times more likely to be below zero in Canada than in the U.S. Twenty-six percent of the Canadian natal accidents in the BASIC set were below freezing.
Tables were prepared for the ALL file showing injury indexes of Fatal, Fatal With Survivors, Serious and Minor/None (Tables 7.10 through 7.13). Due to the case selection criteria, these cases are not a random set of data, but are biased by the presence of ELT data in the file.
The two fatal groups are 761 U.S. data, while the serious accidents are only 51 U.S., and the minor/none are 170 U.S. data.
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w .^ w ° c a 1- a te + ate + . c v A 1- 61 L ul ep m N 61 d L J A m m h 41 J. ^O T L6 LL N N W > Li Li N = N T W S T J P ++ J J J .+ J J J 4 a J J J ++ J J J cr -J -W 11I J J u d J J J 11 J J J 'r J J J 61 J V d .J C 6 Q 4 d d.4 ^= 60: 4d d 4Z d d^ j 5-3 s As would be expected, location and damage codes reflect significant differences in these tables. The Minor/None table shows the cockpit-cabin remains together and in near normal shape in all but a few cases. The high figure for the landing gear damage represents the criteria for being called an accident in the greatest percentage of these cases. Inflight fire occurred once, a gear motor with no subsequent damage, and ground fire occurred once consuming the entire aircraft. Over one-third of these air- craft ended up inverted, and the plop was bent in 83% of these accidents.
When the most severe injury was serious, cabin damage and cockpit damage increases somewhat, with 12% of the passenger cabins broken up and 14% of the cockpit areas destroyed. A higher percentage of these aircraft wind up inverted (also true of Canadian fatal accidents). Prop, engine, and gear damage are more severe, but the empennage is still in near normal shape in 90% of these accidents. Ground fire is involved in 9% of the serious cases, with cockpit and cabin most often involved. Less than one-third of the fires involve the vertical tail and 23% involve the hori- zontal tail areas.
When there are both fatalities and survivors, ground fire involvement is up to 16%, cockpit and cabin destruction is around 20%, but the tail section is still in one piece in about 93% of the cases.
In the fatal group, ground fire is involved in 25% of all cases, with 5% of those also having an inflight fire. Fire damage involves the pass- enger and crew areas in over 80% of these fires, the wings about 70% of the time, and the empennage about 40% of the time. The cockpit remained in near normal shape in only 8% of these cases, and the cabin in only 12%.
However, even in these accidents, the empennage was in near normal shape in 70% of the cases, and the aft fuselage in 43%. Only half of these air- craft remained upriy,^t. Prop bending occurred in 97% of the cases.
5.2 SEARCH AND RESCUE DATA Table 5.2.1 is a summary of the search statistics from the ALL, BASIC, SAR, and other subset files. For the accident files with search data "Search Required" ranged from 27% for U.S. fatal accidents to 8110 for the Canadian fatal accidents. Since only 67% of the Canadian fatal cases had search data, it may be possible that the negative answer was less likely to be recorded, and the true figure is closer to the 54% (87/160) actually recorded. In any event, the ELT can be seen to be a necessary tool for the search and rescue community, especially in Canada. Temperature data, Table 3.1.3, also confirms that severe cold temperatures are more likely in Canada, complica- ting the rescue task and requiring that it be accomplished more quickly.
It is interesting to note the figures for the SAR set, Table 7.47, which were specifically identified as ELT search success cases by the U.S.
Air Force. The NTSB record indicated a search was not required in 8% of did not aid in 20 cases (17 these cases. It also indicated that the ELT %), in direct contradiction to the Rescue Coordination Center reports.
5-4
I
TABLE 5.2.1 SEARCH REQUIREMENTS BASIC BASIC BASIC ALL BASIC H.S. Fatal Can. Fatal Can. Ser. SAR 1. Cases in File 1135 916 469 160 141 118 2. Search Required 385 272 122 87 27 106 3. Search Not Required 525 450 323 20 21 10 4. % Search Data Available 2 + 3 80 79 95 67 34 98
"T
5. a Search Required in Total File 2 34 30 26 54 19 90 T 6. o Search Required if Search Data 2 42 38 27 81 56 91 Available 2 + 3 In the set of Search Required data, Tables 7.45 and 7.46, the ELT is recorded as installed more often, and as activating more often than in the whole comparable set. This may be due to a tendency to report ELT data more often in cases where a search was also reported. In this BASIC group, the activation ratio is only 67%, comparable to the whole BASIC group's 60%.
The ELT was recorded destroyed in 19a of these cases, compared to 23% of the BASIC set. Ground fire only occurred in 14% of the cases. If it had occurred at the BASIC average of 22%, there would have been 21 more fires, and probably would have resulted in a similar ELT destruction rate. It is also possible that a burning aircraft is less likely to require a search.
Seven percent of these cases were recorded as "wreckage not recovered- water". This compares to five percent in the BASIC set. A search is more likely if the aircraft is underwater, and the ELT is almost useless. In one case, the ELT signal was detected by a helicopter while hovering over an oil slick.
Note that the BASIC set has 13 more cases of ELT aid in search for the same number of search required. This is due to the accepting and recording of a statement that ELT aided in search (as recorded in the accident files), even when the balance of the file indicated that a search was not necessary.
Discussion with search and rescue (SAR) personnel indicates that it is normal to shut off an ELT after a successful search, most often with the switch on the unit, but sometimes by disconnecting or breaking the antenna.
The accident investigator does not leave his office until the aircraft is found and so may not even meet or talk to search personnel. He may not obtain accurate data on search or ELT use.
5-5 The data tends to confirm these ideas, since the disagreement in the SAR file is substantial.
Additional search parameters were obtained as shown on the data collection form, and some are listed in Table 5.2.2 for the BASIC and SAR groups.
Additional search data is available in the CRISIS data base, but is not applicable to this study.
TABLE 5.2.2 METHODS AND TIME DATA FOR SEARCHES BASIC SAR 35 8 Method of Search - Ground Air 48 11 0 Boat Air & Boat 0 Ground & Air 15 All Modes 6 0 0 0 Aids in Detection - LF Radio Automatic CPI 42 68 VHF/UHF Homing Visual Mirror 0 0 Visual Smoke 7 0 Visual Wreckage 5 Visual Pyro 1 0 13 0 Visual Other # ro % Time from Accident to Notification # 111 59 51 67 0 - 2 Hours 31 16 11 14 3 - 6 Hours 23 12 10 13 7 - 24 Hours Time from Accident to Search Success 47 22 15 16 0 - 2 Hours 28 13 7 8 3 - 6 Hours 28 35 38 7 - 24 Hours Greater than 24 Hrs. 34 37 s 5-6 t 5.3 GROUND CONTACT AND FINAL REST DATA Page 3 of the data collection form provided a pictorial example for coding the aircraft attitude in pitch, roll, and yaw at ground contact and final rest. This is difficult to determine, and experi- enced investigators will often disagree on the meaning of specific evidence. However, the Canadian form provides for this data, and it was established for the U.S. data, whenever possible, by the research- er from narrative, witness, or photographic evidence.
Since it relates to "whole body" position, it accurate for is more ground contact, and less representative for final rest since the air-- craft may be broken into many pieces.
Only 50% of the BASIC file had ground contact data, and 59% had final rest data. Tables 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 present the combined roll and pitch attitude at ground contact and final rest for the BASIC and ALL files, respectively. These tables show that the data clusters around normal flight attitudes of wings nearly level and nose level or down.
Nose-high attitudes are rare, as are banks in excess of 30 0 . Ground contact inverted is rare, but final rest inverted is quite common.
Table 5.3.3 is an attempt to indicate the impact dynamics by show- ing the relationship between ground contact and final rest in individual cases. Figure 5.3.1 shows the boundaries of the groupings used, and then the first part of Table 5.3.3 shows how many accidents were in each group.
For example, the total number of accidents Table 5.3.1 with ground in contact roll attitudes of G or H or I and pitch attitudes of D or E or F (Group 1) is 156.
This summation continues for all the groups shown.. Table 5.3.3 then provides a cross tabulation showing how many of the accidents in a partic- ular ground contact group ended up in a particular final rest group.
For example, 156 aircraft hit the ground with 30° of less of roll and 0 to 30 0 nose-down pitch. However, 243 aircraft ended up in this position, including 72 from the first group. Of the 156 aircraft in group 1, 25 ended up nearly inverted, and the rest were distributed in many other attitudes.
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5-10 ! e TABLE 5.3.3 GROUND CONTACT KINEMATICS IN THE BASIC SET Ground Contact Group Number of P,W dents in Group Accidents Groups are defined by 2 73 95 Figure 5.3.1 5 39 Number of Accidents in Final Rest Group Accidents Group 7 47 9 15 11 12 12 85 Ground Contact and Final Rest Cross Tabulation 7 8 9 10 11 12 19 5 0 1 0 6 3 26 4 0 0 4 6 1 0 1 6 0 3 1 1 0 4 3 ,* , 5-11 5.4 CANADIAN IMPACT DATA ion form has provisions for The Canadian aircraft accident investigat by the aircraft, based on calculating the acceleration level experienced other parameters. This impact velocity change, stopping distance, and at the top of page 4. This reproduced on our data collection form form is possible. It was never data was obtained from Canadian files whenever available in the U.S. files.
Thirty-three cases had an entry for the primary impact acceleration force. The values ranged from 0.96G to 258G. Twenty of these did not have ELT data.
the ELT activated but did not aid for other reasons.
In four cases, The G levels were 2, 30, 71, and 129.
reported as not activating because it was In one case, the ELT was destroyed. The reported accident was 93G. Another case reported an in- ternal malfunction after 26G.
cases, the ELT was reported as not activating because of in- In two sufficient force. One was .96G and the other was 29G.
In five cases, the ELT was reported as not activating for unknown reasons. The G levels were 20, 46, 50, 92, and 108.
indicate that no consistent data can be drawn The above summary would between the calculated G force and the ELT performance. The sample of data is small, and so additional study of these cases with both G force and ELT data would not yield meaningful results.
5-12 6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS The following general conclusions regarding the general aviation fixed-wing accident are applicable to the question of ELT system relia- bility.
1. Nearly one-third of all aircraft came to rest inverted.
2. Ground fire occurs in 22N of the cases, and where the ELT is destroyed, in 56% of the cases.
3. The ELT is destroyed in about one-quarter of all fatal accidents.
4. When it is installed and activation status is reported, the ELT activat-',d in about of the fatal accidents, 690 of the fatal 62N with survivors accidents, nearly 800 of the serious accidents, and about 57% of the minor/none injury accidents.
5. In fatal accidents, the aircraft section least likely to be destroyed and separated into pieces is the vertical tail, but it is destroyed 160 of the time and crushed/distorted another of the Cime. Almost the same condition is true of the 16% horizontal tail surface.
6. In fatal accidents, the nose is undamaged in only 10 of the cases, the cockpit in only 2N. The prop is unbent in 2% of these cases. In serious accidents, the nose is undamaged in only 3% of the cases. In fatal with survivors cases, the nose was undamaged in 7N of the cases.
7. No ELT is installed in about 8% of the aircraft that are required by law to have them. Overall installation data shows ELT units in 821 of all aircraft, regardless of requirement.
6-1
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8. Antenna cable disconnection and antenna breakage <,,,: also important, although low percentage, causes of failure to transmit usable signals. However, a number of cases of final homing were done on units with no antenna.
9. In about 70 of the accidents where a search is required, the aircraft was underwater.
10. Initial alerting occurred in about half of the situations where the ELT aided in search. This indicates that the total system (transmitter, detection receiver, and homing receiver) is less than optimum. The SARSAT program should dramatically change this situation.
6.2 SYSTEM RECOMMENDATION - NEAR TERM The greatest single cause of unreliable operation in ELT units now in use appears to have been the battery. Many of these problems will be corrected by current activities of the FAA on Lithium battery improvements.
The problem of false activation of current units was not a specific element of this study, but is being addressed in other work. It is be- lieved that improvement in mounting will play an important role in de- creasing false alarms.
Based on the general conclusions in this study, the following recomm- endations apply to the work of SC-136, on ELT units built to DO-168. It should be remembered that the ELT is not intended for use in a whole air- craft, but in aircraft wreckage.
1. Mount as far aft as possible in the empennage or immediately forward of it.
Antenna should be integral to the ELT if possible, projecting 2.
through the skin at an angle to the vertical sufficient to pro- vide some upward signal if the aircraft is inverted. A dual antenna should be considered. (Do not create a hazard to per- sonnel from eye injury, etc.). If a cable is required, keep the run short and not across any production break, with at least 50% slack in the cable, and locking connectors.
Mount to primary load carrying longitudinal structure, with 3.
minimal freedom of motion due to vibration. Any shelf or bracket should have the same degree of strength and rigidity as the primary structure in that area.
Require a greater degree of crashworthiness. For example, a 4.
steel case, potting of internal electronic components, secure case closures, battery mass at the forward end, some fire pro- tection, and high-strength flexible antenna would increase crashworthiness. The unit should not come out of the mount without the use of tools. Do not provide for quick release.
(The DO-168 requirement for 100G mounting is not considered sufficient, as the unit itself must survive, regardless of damage to aircraft).
6-2 I 5.
A remote control must be clearly labled and available to all occupants. It should indicate if the unit
is transmitting and
have no failure mode in its electrical circuits that would dis- i able the ELT after activation due to a crash. This could be accomplished simply by requiring a specific sequence of two different electrical signals to shut off the unit after auto- matic activation.
6.
Require the use of remote crash sensing if it can be accomplished
on a cost effective basis. The 00-168 specified crash pulse will
be detected at the main gear attachment or forward structure more often than in the tail.
6.3 SYSTEM RECOMMENDATIONS - 406 MHz ELT 1. The ELT units
must be crash survivable. The technology exists
to produce a low cost ELT that will survive the impact force of most general aviation accidents. It should also have thermal protection for a short duration fire.
2. The antenna system should be crash survivable and have the capa- bility of transmitting a usable signal when the aircraft is in- verted as well as upright. Conformal or high-strength flexible antennas should be required.
3. Mounting of the unit should be secure to primary structure, with metallic, semi-permanent attac iment devices. No quick release or single-point attachment should be provided. The total attachment strength should exceed that of the surrounding structure by a small margin. An alternative, automatically deployable unit should be permitted.
4. The ability to remove and carry out the ELT is of very low impor- tance, and should not compromise the basic system requirement. A second, small, non-crashworthy unit operating only on 121.5 MHz could be carried in the aircraft by those persons who judge that this use is cost effective. If the people are sufficiently unin- jured to walk out, such a personal unit should also be undamaged.
The compromise in mounting and location necessitated by multiple use is undesirable.
5. Regardless of the degree of crash survivability designed into the ELT unit, the ELT unit is most likely to survive undamaged in the empennage of the aircraft.
6. Crash sensing should be done in the forward part of the aircraft, using acceleration, deformation, or other appropriate sensors in the nose, cabin, or forward structure. Severe deformation and
deceleration in the forward part of the aircraft is a character-
istic of fatal and serious accidents. Any sensor that detects this without ambiguity would constitute a good design approach. A small amount of logic and three sensors should be sufficient to achieve 100% sensing of all serious or fatal crashes and eliminate sensor caused false alarms.
6-3 7. Remote manual activation should be provided for any surviving occupant in the passenger or crew area, with clearly described instructions for use. proper design and labeling of the remote control should eliminate the need for 100 1% sensing of minor in- jury accidents, permitting the pilot or occupant to override the logic in the few cases where the crash was not sensed..
There are no significant differences between types of aircraft 8.
that would necessitate a variation in the above recommendations.
Even unusual configurations, such as rear engines, would require some form of vertical stabilizer in which the transmitter could be mounted. (See Ref. 8 for a discussion of future aircraft designs).
9. Increased compliance with ELT regulations would also increase the usefulness of the system. All new aircraft should be re- quired to have approved factory installations.
6.4 ASSESSMENT OF CURRENT RELIABILITY Using projections of the BASIC data, the following assessment is made of actual ELT reliability in service today, assuming that the absence of ELT data in the file is random.
Refer to Table 7.2B.
916 accidents in BASIC file 820 ELT installed Therefore: 753 ELTs installed 600 activation ratio Therefore: 451 ELTs activated (490 of accidents) 916 accidents x 380 search requirement Therefore: 348 searches less 7ro underwater Therefore: 324 searches on land 490 activated Therefore: 159 ELTs activated when search is required less 70 where antenna was disconnected 148 useful signals Potential useful signals for alerting and homing should occur in 430 (148/348) of searches. But initial alerting occurred in only 15°0 of the searches.
6-4 6.5 PROJECTED RELIABILITY FOR 406 MHz SYSTEM FOR FATAL AND SERIOUS ACCIDENTS Assumption: 1. ELT required on all fixed-wing general aviation aircraft.
2. 8% non-compliance ratio (same as today).
3. 7% of aircraft underwater when search is required.
4. 96% activation ratio in fatal and serious accidents.
(4% do not sense crash).
5. 100% detection of any activated signal.
95% survival of ELT units (5% destroyed).
6.
No antenna disconnect, no dead batteries.
7.
These assumptions are believed to be technically achievable. 95% ELTs survive crash on land. Of these, 96% activate and send usable signal.
Therefore: 911 of ELTs transmit usable signal 93% of aircraft requiring search are on land and 92% have ELT Therefore: 86 1 1V ELT on land and 91°0 transmit usable signal 78% initial alerting of crash by ELT in all cases where Therefore: search is required This is a marked improvement over the current 15% recorded in this study. If the assumption of a perfect ELT is made (all activate, none destroyed), then the initial alerting goes to 860. Adding 100% compliance with regulations puts the maximum at 930 for all crashes on land.
With the addition of only the satellite portion of the system, but no improvement in activation or survival, the initial detection rate could approach 43% from the current 15%.
TABLE 6.5.1 INITIAL ALERTING BY ELT IN ALL SEARCHES 15% Current System %1 100% detection by satellite of current units 43 78% Achievable improvement in 406 MHz ELT 860% Perfect 406 MHz ELT 93% 100% installation with perfect 406 MHz ELT 6-5 7.0 CRISIS DATA TABLES
^. 7-1
CODES USED IN DATA TABLES LOCATION CODES 0 Unknown 1 Continuity of structure back to section A 2 Attached to next inboard section, but not back to A 3 Almost separated, most structural continuity gone 4 Separated completely DEFORMATION CODES 0 Unknown 1 Basically undamaged, minor dents and tears 2 Major dents, tears but still in near normal shape 3 Crushed/distorted/crumpled 4 Destroyed, pieces separated 5 Buried in wreckage/dirt/debris ATTITUDE AT REST ( PITCH OR ROLL ) 1 : 30 degrees of upright/normal attitude in both pitch and roll 2 30 degrees 90 degrees from normal in pitch or roll 3 90 degress from normal (inverted) AIRCRAFT TYPE CODE A Very light/home built B Light utility/trainer C Cabin class, single engine, unpressurized D Cabin class, single engine, pressurized E Cabin class, twin, unpressurized F Cabin class, twin, pressurized G Commuter 10+ passenger, unpressurized H Commuter 10+ passenger, pressurized J Unusual configurations MWIJ INDEX OF DATA TABLES IN CHAPTER SEVEN 7.1 ALL BASIC 7.2 BASIC - Aircraft Type Code A 7.3 7.4 BASIC - Aircraft Type Code B 7.5 BASIC - Aircraft Type Code C 7.6 BASIC - Aircraft Type Code E 7.7 BASIC - Aircraft Type Code F 7.8 BASIC - Aircraft Type Code G or H 7.9 BASIC - Aircraft Type Code J 7.10 ALL, Fatal Injury 7.11 ALL, Fatal With Survivors 7.12 ALL, Serious Injury 7.13 ALL, Minor/None Injury 7.14 BASIC, Fatal U.S., Fatal 7.15 BASIC, 7.16 BASIC, Canadian, Fatal 7.17 BASIC, Fatal With Survivors 7.18 BASIC, Fatal With Survivors, U.S.
7.19 BASIC, Fatal With Survivors, Canadian 7.20 BASIC, Serious 7.21 ALL, ELT Activated BASIC, ELT Activated 7.22 BASIC, ELT Destroyed by Impact 7.23 7.24 ALL, Canaidan Data, 5 Major ELT Units 7.25 ALL, U.S. Data, 5 Major ELT Units ALL, Sharc ELT 7.26 ALL, Narco ELT 7.27 ALL, Garrett ELT 7.28 7.29 ALL, Pointer ELT ALL, Emergency Beacon Corp. ELT 7.30 BASIC, Sharc ELT 7.31 BASIC, Narco ELT 7.32 BASIC, Garrett ELT 7.33 BASIC, Pointer ELT 7.34 ELT 7.35 BASIC, Emergency Beacon Corp.
7.36 BASIC, 5 Major ELT Units 7-3 BASIC, ELT Installed, Not Activated 7.37 Ground Fire 7.38 BASIC, Type Code A or B or C, Tricycle Fixed Gear 7.39 BASIC, BASIC, Type Code A or B or C, Tailwheel Fixed Gear 7.40 7.41 BASIC, Type Code C, High Wing BASIC, Type Code C, Low Wing 7.42 7.43 BASIC, ELT in Cockpit or Cabin 7.44 BASIC, ELT in Aft Fuselage ALL, Search Required 7.45 BASIC, Search Required 7.46 7.47 ALL, SAR Report 7.48 ALL, ELT Aid in Search 7-4 I^ +r.
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N ^-+ U G) G) 'd C3 4) CL r l0 .0 G1 C i LL. r — r i - C E O r^ (1) Ci' D O O C G) W J ( N I ` J r r CO +) X G) Ct (:] C "a Q J W Q G) G) V) 4-3 r0 r- •r- N G1 Of 4- J (1) O 4-) O G) N r-
r-- (z C O C rrt i CT N tb a-+ G) • C G) N
r- t > O :2: 0 LO N 4-3 r '- 4-) Q) r- 4-) CL' CU i al 41 i h -0 41 W ftl 3 cm (1) U C .^ Z C O V) 4- Ste. U .0 C .0 C -0 H C C CO Q Q Q ' r - U 0 Q U N C C U i 0 •N
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d
w w w w w w LQ Q Q CL U CL C) Q Q (n N m N 7-104
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A REFERENCES A-1 Special Stud y . Emergency Locator Transmitter: An Overview, NTSB-AAS-78-1, 1.
a'MnaTransportation safety Board, Washington, DC 20 4, 1978.
Control of ELT False Alarms, Publication 1362-01-0-2032, ARINC Research 2.
Corp., Annapolis, , 1979.
SARSAT System Summary, Goddard Space Flight Center, National Aeronautics 3.
and Space Administration, Greenbelt, MD 20771, 1979.
Minimum Performance Standards, Emer g ency Locator Transmitter, DO-147, 4.
Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics, Washington, DC 20006, 1970.
5. Minimum Performance Standards Emergency Locator Transmitter, 00-168 Radio echn ca Commission for Aeronautics, Washington, DC 20006, 1979.
6. Radio Standards Specification, RSS-147, Department of Communications, Canada.
7. Development of Crash Sensor Performance Specifications and Test Pro- cedures, Crash Research Institute, Tempe, AZ 85281, 1977.
Harned, M.S., "General Aviation Aircraft in the 90's", Astronautics 8.
and Aeronautics, V. 18, N. 1, January 1980.
Crash Survival Design Guide, USARTL-TR-79-22E, Prepared for Applied 9.
Technology Laboratory, U.S. Army Research & Technical Laboratory, (AVRADCOM) Ft. Eustis, VA 23604, January 1980.
f A-2
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B ELT MANUFACTURERS DATA B-1
t
N C O N V Y L N N a N N > A M ^ C •fl Y Y V O.
L N C Q ^yy t A ^ L $ LC N 'V C G7 t Y li Y L a .- Y_ .ii L Q ^0tt1 Y Y _\ N 01 cm qs
t C J J
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m
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as s
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.ea^aro u q o 0
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d
1p In d Y ^ L C =.• u.
L C Ut s.l O > ^D C O p u L C.O V p q i t 2 O u^ 10 U N + O^ N CO a C 6 61 7 C^
d^
a°^ o \ c.i a o .a ^Qp• C Q N L N P^ N A Y O C+C g^ r^YN^ i p r T r -^ 17 r • U ^•• T tir L.
M w uif f.! A 10 T A= X C N N L i . N L C t W 4ppp7111 O L m C^ L N .•E.
Aj C! C!
cm " LI 1p 10 Q1 L u ^ U C L dcc CCI is Clr oo X 41 V C c Z- r at T >• W CI C>• •• C y J 4 N ^p r U -7 O J tY J co ^..
Y N N N N N co fl tT ^ W nw r •..
000c!o a C r^ N f"1 f'1 {`7 7 7 7 1 C O CI d u 1.
N 77 O O 1 1 1 1 1 U U U U 1. LM N r r T m C2 ID m w CI CI CI .L CI .7 JJ T N W W W W WW W a'd'O'a' L"w Jr^ QCC a+ Q J J ^ gm O O QQQp^^^ r p d CI N N > N W .C==
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c _rn o IM a' 9 IC 4 > r z v v i rt C .i- w U to cO c ~ t, ..tf A^ O ^ c L L _ 4 to •- M — O 61 N: .1 .1 p ^ C' Lb, L.
d ClN W TO > Q N v A CI W CI >1= N a C N O N 7 W ^ N O '^ C 1 O> O v i^ 6 y vlartY CIC .O a`ta LV V V L L aS L ^O O r L u p1r 6 C7 co L W_ L a t pp "A d e0^al V tfl` rL b J%ODN lr7 t.7 N2 .j 4" WL6 =01Q C6 11 Q I J 'Z 6-3 ^r L O Y N a i E x A r O ^ u L e
2N
J LTi Y ggL^^ r rc p n S ^ J S C Y a eepp ^^ C C a N 7 C b ^ N O C X ^ C O a C NCVr a .+au^ a w 7CW d ^ dJ G L U s 6 C t Aj a.r O Ad N
^iAd ^i a
X E d X N sJ d I y N r C O COS C _ y ( O ' f fhN r a V L L pp CQQ 0 0 6 G S S S S J W 1A ^ O ^ N N N tO v 1K cc 16. CL cli V u Ln N C p co SOU vii <a ¢; L Q + v s r l^^ r 6i 7XL rec GU U o CL "1 ar--F- =m2 a aJ B-4 ELT SWITCH MANUFACTURERS Aerodyne Control Corp. Inertia Switch, Inc.
90 Gazza Blvd. 260 N. Route 303 Farmingdale, NY 11735 West Nyack, NY 10994 (516) 694-3500 (914) 358-9070 Technar, Inc.
205 N. 2nd Avenue Arcadia, CA 91006 (213) 445-1143 The following are believed to have their own proprietary desigh EBC Larago Micro Electronics lJ^ B-5
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C A SUMMARY OF ELT INSTALLATION DATA WHICH WAS RECEIVED FROM PAUL NEUMANN, FAA, IN RESPONSE TO HIS REQUEST TO FAA REGIONAL OFFICES FOR A COPY OF ELT MOUNTING AND INSTALLATION MANUALS, IS CONTAINED IN PAGES 2-5.
PAGES o AN" J ARE ADDITIONAL DATA OBTAINED FROM SALES LITERATURE AND OTHER SOURCES.
C-1 "I., I
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Y ^ r•• w _ CC r_ e .
r Z w.
O^ r N N r N LSO N V N ^•.
IA a r •r r c v .- G v E E ie ^a. CKi C Y O A v i+ Y Y. Y Y O ^^ ^^ C N Ol O ^C d Q C= C 4.Cr O Y^Y.
ACL L3 00>R r A O H O r r:14 Ci C ^0 7 Y 6 A O r 4-6 . L Y 61 Y Y Ca L d O N a y ^0 U Y •^ 7 C O!^ 10 C+l v ^ • N V 47 Y+ Qf Y ••^ ++ ^ O N J ^- C O Z .0 C vl Y C d ^r A 7 V •r ^ +^ O • • ^ Q V pp V N o .I ^ O } ^7 B O A o N^ C^ 4. Y Y. G N r L C T W A L ^_ d A 6C A Ola it •O)w O N A 630 LT a7d p v3-4 G N • w Qf + _r U C O A U U CL 40 Cr q~ g d c- •L it TJ O 1 6 - 0 ••L. L r O C C r C C G Y A N Y R L r0 r0 v Ci' ► G d r 7 y L C r 1- L Q N p pN r r^ ^^gg y Or LO W ry Gw ^C V CJVS s Ar O Y Y r r O NA 'ON C d CC uC C Q Z= L cu ^+ A r C C w O 7 ^ q ro Y = 6 'O ++O A O OC vC L G. A L r d Vlr N C • CJ C A : t!
Y V Gr — r00 Rau ONYa LOA W VI ^+ C G r ^L O ^ r i U 67 ;J r C 6!
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w
eta
w 4 Y N Y..aL yy ^1 C 1 t C t L " Y t+r + N Y +• •r L O w O V i L o c y = 60 10 A I p•C C Y N Ji ^ o 1 w rw t ,^• ^i L ••CC• C ♦ V 7 +^ 61 L Y I ^O.t^p1CO^ i41^ 000 1 0 L ( 1g LiOC^V67gr 60GAC6NN1 +• "I N C N S.- O Y .0 L 07 F-C 6J •r Y O a w ^1 E p h C y Y i" • O V L O^ Y q. t^ Y N A r7f C Y y o^ r w L C o Y L Y
i e^ s 0 i^ O o^ " a^ L .- a i 61 L N n
r s +1 p N 1.1 N N N G r^ iV q V q w E O 61 1 N 6t L C {) L '^ w d A d O O 16.1 V L 61 Z i C fC i^ 'r N U 0> O Y +• Y 61 rq i'i o L c V N+ r y . t„t Y Y u n om N ^! Y. •r• + q r Y C 6i Y C ° Y N •^ w N € C {7 ^ N ^ C pY 61061 AN.y 0.0 CCY61 O 240 :1. 61 Y r N C U t Y 0 .^ d+ .a1 w t •r O Ot r N t0 Y +t c t!1 4.1 N r N w Q G Y V 4 Cft ► Y L Y r r 61 Y to W f( N C C Y A ti-c O $ V^ r• s 61 D C V ++ C q O C C J - do A i L ^Lp 4. Y ^ 61.E ..^. Y Y t 6i N + L L i S V C O tr GO > L ^ ,q Y t L O+ 6i Y V C M 1•• .r. V w V O \' A t O L7 M. C Y O L 6i c w 61 C U Y V t^ '7 d a O L -+^ r^ V 9 C 7 .G 4 p L .ic "O D O
C o^ Gq J ,YO
L yam^.. tjf Of L^ L w N C V . b y W 6 t ^e >t 0 w O ^ to V w wa i rs t ^p Q1 ^¢t ^ . G 6l N pf Y. N o L q Y tw a^ p r+t C L ' C7 r N N I d FA -V I=M N 6 L_C ty1Yr cv Q C +N Qt 7 — LOj C > .0 V n 401 — L N +1 Ot ,y w C 40 A ^1 G r L Y q N OtY i T O W a^ C N — C c i ••+— pti • ► 4.r`t ^ G, tp L d .a Y •r L Z •r ..• C A r in Y u c o q
O i p A A
p ^ ^p^ rte`, W c w S. s a ^.r Nom_" ^^i^ N 67^
eo, Y e Y i p C V• t 1.. 61 C N c w Y 6J e L u 61 V 61
t` t^ N+ V p Y O O Y Y '7 d L to A 6 4. O G w t^ •'•• •r N c L t t..^ Y r^ t0 n• ► • r I'.
61 g' 7 {60,1 W .Q a .7 V f 61 VI L A A 'A L N 61 Yr^. L L V p^ L N L O N O Y C L R GZ •r C L N ...
C V^ H V .G Y 41 6J ^ 6l •^ Y Z7 7 >^ 7 •••t A A 67 A tr. O Y V Y C d AJ V •D > O ^1 L L C p^ N W O gl to O L •^ Y 4J Y 61 C C m L +r W q Y N 61 C L-) — Q 4. C N 7 0 9 C a N N q1 •.. p 7 'C C. 61 C tU r •^ 1^ 6611 L Y c N E A • O +" A w ,^ tC t S.
N Y.. —= Y t N YT.
L O t—r A A CI C CYY O 1 'T Y C V C d 61 +^ ,^ c n. G ^• Y N• .1L V tl. L O •^ Y O. d T •r N C X C L • u 6 ^ ^" O r^ QQ O Y ••0 61 ^ o L C w N d O V O Y •r j to C tf d Y r Y Y i d t ► . O L i 41z Z O ++ w @ N i L L C L r^ y i Y 9 Y Y W 1 3 w• C `•: tq; 6/ r-w y X01 C r yy t^^ ' tU i
9 pO o 61 ^L L c s t y C O y a1 i e W. r 6! M= c C t C V a L 41
y 0-a+i 7YG y -Q t1 Y GO 0 C 39 0 V L is di >. w't• O0 — w t u ^. y
L ^
Q Q p v. '. N Y J I y
6J 8 MIS— f^ m p
O S •••• '.fie Y 1^ O 9 47 C0 CO O L 1^7 ^ti L A V ` t 61 C 61 61 c 6J d .O' L U d te G•6 o •- T da Zug Y V ^ ^
3 N
t oM N ar
d
rg' db $^ 6 c T ic (yy/ 4 ' $° {{ y^^f M N O s V L I N N 4T^, Cr >OaJSC , ^ ^ V 4.1 ^ E C W N 3% A A ai wl 60 0 y N U O C vC+ c x^ w c vla M ^^ ^ ^W° ^; age
S
$g^^^^
$
ps M L ^ CH 61 C i ^ • L 1.irC 7 .G N. CI O N c in N y 667 di C O V z .r y y 0 A^A C 6J ?^A4 ' L Z UGr r ?^ ^4j 5^ Q ^ .^C_ d M2 q 10JJ L 61 iO C 41 L T U U E^ i c .e 3 L 6 A 67 Ol U a0i 4J 0 N Q T 7 o IV +ter 02 6 i E Q O i 21,W.4.0— L A ze. i NW d i i L L v ar 67 I JJ L ^.. N ^ ^ ` ^ O -i J G7 r^ L 7r U A qO Y _IVY V ulO L6I CG Z S ^0 `^ f.. W Q: C- 7
APPENDIX D
APPENDIX D FAA DOCUMENT AC 43-13-2A (EXTRACTED) D-1 ► 1177 AC 43.13-3A tiw :1. EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER IELTI Ile installation the ELT anteruxa, should -f IN.^TALLATIONS. at- mm other in• T'h e ELT unit should be be located as far as practicable f taci,ed to the airfranuj or other solid btructures. vtalled antinnaa Methods for securing whip- .iorfn me preparation for either vertical or ahelf- type antennae to th, structure are shown in fig.
, , e notintil^ is displayed in 6Rures 2.7 and urtw 3 .1 and 3.3. Follow the manufacturer's 4.
a equipment manufacturer mounting in.,tahatidn pr.x•edures when available.
.,,.r, meet load requirenient ; a and can be 29.-35. [RESERVED`] utiw&! alt~ axeptable.
^. 1177 • Use standard aircraft practices and procedures for (Wication and attachment of shelf. Reinforce fore iN aft corners with gussets or Nib angle.
P'torw 2. &—T"Ica1 shelf Installation.
_ -1) APPS^JDIX D FAA DOCUMPIT AC 43.13-2A D-^ i 1^^ I ^ AC 47.16L2A ^: • 4e • 1 r A • i EQUIP. MOU'.TING PLATE V ^• FUSELAGE 2T TO SUIT 7 T (Irvin)— EQUIP.
(a+i _ uc c
7-^NUT PLATES
BULB ANGLE '^' '•'
BULB ANOLE
nauzs 2.7.-typical remote unit mounting beer•-vcrtical or horizontal L + D-3 C' AC 43.13-2A Yqk' 1 W7
Chaptor 3. ANTENNA INSTALLATIONS
IS) Instrimient static source interf^-rence.
3^. FIVO /MANCE. For proper perfonnancx, it is imp.)rtant that the radio equipment manv.- b. Attach antenna mounting (masts, base re- facturer ' s instructions be carefully followed in ceptacles, and,or supportiug brackets) so that matching and coupling the antenna to the radio the loads imposed (e.g., air, ice, etc.) are truln- equipment. mitted to the aircraft structure.
is of primary Me location of ih• ant*nno 37. VHF ANTENNA—WHIP.
a.
bwportanca. When selecting a mounting pcAi antenna w that there is 9 a. I.ucate this iyl y tion, ooasideration should be given but not line lninimum of stntcture between it and the ground be mounted ited to the following: radio stations. The antenna may on the top or bottom of the fuselage. It is not (1) Obstruction to signal reception by air- advisable to mount the antenna on the cowl for- vmponont,- craft or aircraft c ward of the windshield becmuse a lightning strike (2) Ignition not m (RF radiation pickup).
might possibly blind the pilaf~ . (3! Fibrstic.^_ b. Methods of securing whip antennas to the structure sre shown in figures 3.1, sad 3.3.
W Flutter.
ANTENNA ROD HEX, NVT FLAT WASHER ' (BRAS5) MACHINE GASKET SCREW .
1 - - c- CERAMIC BUSHING (FEMALE) GASKET SKIN OF AIRPLANE SKIN OF AIRPLANE GASKET .
1 CERAMIC Bl1SMING j1NALE) HEX. NUT ^ a i .
7i
CABLE CLAMP (PART GASKET OF ANTENNA CABLE) FLAT WASHER LOCK WASHER LOCK WASHER ANTENNA CABLE HEX, NUT ANTENNA CABLE LUG FLAT 'MASHER LOCK WASHER SJLOV LUG " (P %RT (.,F ANTENNA CABLE) HEX, NUT F'taaaa 3A.—TypIcul whip antenna Inrtallatton.
cbm 2 M S. , xv D-4 AC N.13—!A • `^ X771 c. On fabric-covered aircraft or aircraft with (2) The approximate drag load an antenna other types of nottmetallic skin, the manufac- is required to wit haand oan be drter. , iinal by turer's recommendations should be followed in the following formula: order to provide the nece-mary ground plane.
D =,00W27 AV' An acceptable method 'of accomplishing this is by pro-. iding a number of metal foil strips in a (The formula includeA a Do percent reduction radial poecitior ` rom 6e antenna base and secured fak-tor foc streamline shape of antennA.)
ender the fabrle - or wood skin of the aircraft. Where D ie the dreg k>ad a1 the antenna in 1be-, (fee fig. 3.2. ) A is the frontal area of the antenna in sq. ft - , and WHIP V is the V.. of the aircraft in m.p.h.
ANTENNA
TTo frontal area of typical untennaa are approxi-
mately as follow;,:
d ;.tr>trtu Arsa
( Pig. 3.4)
("g• A)
a .073
h _ 1q5 _.
v .13.5 d .026 e 1046 Example : Antenna. "b" at. 250 m.ph.
D = .00W27X.130X (250)'
G ^ J
=.000387 X. 135 X 02,5W
LJ
=2.75 lbs.
METAL FOIL UNDER FABRIC OR WOOD SKIN 4anr+...a ti.wuo n h1 .! *A1 a "OLOW NOTE: THE LENGTH OF EACH FOIL r^.+Ir.o w.WWW. ro aW 0 •.at aM 1 RADIAL SHOULD BE AT LEAST EQUAL TO THE ANTENNA LENGTH.
Fiaaaa 3.2.—Antrnua g round plane for nonmetallic
alreraft.
3s. VHF ANTENNA — RIGID.
r/ J is necessary to cover a broader fre- a. When it
n
be covered by it whip an- quency range thaIl can Awitrw" .5aw tenna, a blade type should be used because it / w tvm. d —Pa.
is revenant over a much broader frequenc y rangy.
W10 A rw^ YLkMI /^ However, a broadband antenna is not as efficir+nt / ion, / ,.,,..a,.o as a small diameter whil, antenna and, accord- 1Nw ingly, should not be used with relativel y low output transmitters (under 5 watts).
14wr000wG run \ 111 The antennas shown in figure 3 4 are - fFO rM normally installed at a point on the fuselage -co.n.
G.UI,+D t..at on+a - Locm ,.A5•ea directly above the cabin or baggage compArtment.
0 .Q a -OUM..NG l T.
k
soar lVhen a rigid antenna is installed on the vi- vertical stabilizer, evaluate the flutter and bration characteristics of the installmion. i tovtu 3.3, Typlrxl shockmounted antenna Installation Ct" 3 t a l^Itfr,LtiAl, PAGE IS 0=9 F E'u+)R i1t1AI,l7y
APPENDIX E
APPENDIX E CRISIS DATA COLLECTION FORM E-1 le Analyst Date Form Filled Out ^.
Government File Number l Our File Number
A/C Registration Number l1_1L_1 D,.te L
Month Day YearI I ELEVATION TIME (Local) W State Code Number Location MSL SERIAL NUMBER
MODEL "Type Code
MANUFACTURER AIRCRAFT .• DIRIGIBLE HOMEBUILT GYROPLANE A AEROPLANE I -- AIRCRAFT BLIMP ? ULTRA-LIGHT BALLOON HELICOPTER CLASSIFICATION OTHER GLIOIR SKi ._ OTHER.
TAILWHEEL RETRACT TRICYCLE FIXED H I0 a I I SKID TRICYCLE RETRACT HULL/FLOAT P 1 LANDING I AMPHIBIOUS TAILWHEEL FIXED I GEAR I o SKI-WHEEL FLOAT-SKID 2 FLOAT A HULL I 10 l i I TWIN ROTOR I MID WING or LOW WING A WING/ROTOR OTHER SINGLE ROTOR ( HIGH WING i o Y MANUFACTURER MODEL NUMBER POWER HP.
INSTALLED L= EfVGiNE(S) T, lose_ TU"7BOSHAFT TURBOJET NONE RECIPROCATING
IHl1..ICOPTERSI •
R A ENGINE OTHER TYPE I TURBOFAN C TURBOPROP Io R REVERSIBLE ^ VARIABLE PITCH ^ ( FIXED WOODEN FIXED METAL A PROPELLER CONSTANT SPEED TYPE .
OTHER CONSTANT SPEED FULLY FEATHERING o DESTROYED I UNKNOWN SUBSTANTIAL MINOR I, NONE I Io AIRCRAFT DAMAGE IK N I^ TOTAL
I
MINOP NONE UNKNOWN FATAL SERIOUS I PILOT IN COMMAND INJURIES TO OTHER. CREW PERSONS PASSENGERS PERSONS OUTSIDE AIRCRAFT FIRST TYPE OF OCCURRENCE FIRST PHASE OF ON SECOND TYPE OF OCCURRENCE we CONO PHASE OF OPERATION WITHIN 4.8 Km WITHIN .4 Km A ON AIRPORT R
1/4 mi
3 ml WITHIN 6.4 Km
. I ON SEAPLANE BASE WITHIN .8 Km
4 ml 1 /2 m i
AERODROME WITHIN 8 Km WITHIN 1.1 Km ON HELIPORT
5 mi 3/4 mi
PROXIMITY BEYOND 8 Km I ON/BARGE/SHIP/PLATFORM WITHIN 1.6 Km
1 ml
WITHIN 7.1 Km IN CIRCUIT Illegal Operation
page 1 J '
()1ifGLtiAL PAIGE 1 Search & Rescue Mission OV P(X)R
E-2
i Page 2 Port G — WEATHER AT TIME AND PLACE OF ACCIDENT SOLO ICE OFiNFORMATION SKY COVER
COIL 1((t • r evel
q CLEAR CCEILING FT.
Thi s Page q OTHER FT.
VISIBILITY TUROWLENCE LIGHT CONDITIONS
b q !RIGHT q NON E LIGHT q MODERATE DAWN / DUSK NIGHT
D 8SEVERE q DARK EXTREME DAYLIGHT NIGHT MILES TEMPE;RATURBI WEATHER CONDITIONS AND VISIBILITY RESTRICTION5 FOG N Fk ING 8SLEET ^SNOW HAZE H SMOKE DICING CONDITIONS °F DUST PAIN OC MOUNTAINOUS ROLLING • TYPE OF TERRAIN LEVEL/FLAT HILLY HARD TREE COVERED WATER K SURFACE BUILT-UP I R OCKY SWAMP R I CONDITION 1CITY•OENSEI w GENERAL BUILT-UP SANDY OTHER ,• ISUNU ROAN -COUNTRY•SPARSL Ic y c `PAVED MUD. WET SOIL SNOW c LOOSE IT HIGH WAVES = ICE SURFACE COMPACT Y OTHER p SWELL- CONOITION U SPECIFIC CULTIVATED y CALM/GLASSY WATER LOW VEGETATION/GRASS a FRO ZEN GROUND 104 pt A CLEAR MOkEN LOWER SCATTERED I OBSCURED SCATTERED ABOVE 1000' SXY OVERCAST LOWER SCATTERED PARTIALLY OBSCURED CONOITION SCATTEIED BELOW 1000' OVERCAST c 0 ISROKEN OUST f SMOKE PRECIPITATION A FOG BLOWING OUST NONE RESTRICTING a PHENOMENA C W SHALLO FOG H SANOSTORM Y OTHER E FREEZING FOG BLOWING SNOW I 101e DRIZZLE SNOW THUNDERSHOWERS • 1 IN SNOW GRAINS'ICE PELLETS I NONE TYPE OF E I RAIN SHOWERS SNOW SHOWERS ^Y OTHER PRECIPITATION w • ^64AIL FREEZING DRIZZLE (Select up t0 .)
SLEET FREEZING RAIN 10 +T a I kkk • (TURBULENCE IN CLOUO (VARIABLE CLOUD BASE {TORNADO N I^ (CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE LIGHT PRECIPITATION HURRICANE, TYPHOON
I,^
l0 s SIGNIFICANT --- SEVERE LINE SQUALL HEAVY PRECIPITATION I MOUNTAIN WAVE WEATHER c .J (WIND VARIABLE I (THUNDERSTORM I NOT SIGNIFICAN- (Select u0 t0 3) + t e WINO GUSTY SEVERE ICING ` R OTHE Y
E-3
(WIND GUSTY s VARIABLE TEm"RATURE BELOW O°C Y0t° K f Conf. level Regis. No.
This Page Our File Number /ELOCITY COMPONENTS AT IMPACT FLIGHT / TERRAIN ANGLE IMPACT TINGLE ATM ANGLE • rORI.•ONT.aL It/see -- v VERTICAL ERTICAL ^ • 07 S2 ff.'f.0 T e L— rj VERIFIED ESTIMATED 329f [] VERIFIED [] ESTIMATE t:a3 sta
OPEN TERRAIN ( Select up to two) OBSTACLES ( Select up to threel
22e3 scs
I
CONCRETE FRESH LOOSE SNOW ROCK FACE TREES 6" TO 9" DIA. H a H ASP ALT ORY CULTIVATEO SOIL A fiGtO STRUCTURE TREES 9" TO 12" DIA.
K DRY PACKED CLAY WET CULTIVATED SOIL WOOD FRAME STRUCTURE I ` TREES 12 c • ' OIA..
k BOULDERS SOD DAY ,SCRUB SOGGY TREES 0.S TO 1.0 FT DIA, u o_ 1 L o BOULDERS K WET SOD WATLR !WINES ti 1 TO 2 FT DIA. N BOULDERS PACKED SNOW I ICE I TOLES 2 TO 2 FT DIA.
F • DIA.
OTHER TREES 2' • TO d •• IY OTHER y TOTAL STONING DISTANCE FROM FIRST IMPACT LATERAL VELOCITY DIRECTION ILEFT ft ft /seC I RIGHT R 22t31ZIIA K 100• 139 t ^ 120 I I Stbd. Plan Rear J ^ I ^ L Ground Contact Final Rest .o I s,o• R JI H ( , REAR C^ O I ^ A • 1.0•
30' Af 60' e0• 120. 137 . 1S0 1
160' 135' 120 • 90 • e0 • AS • 30 • 0• t - ELEVATION UI W 1108 i 0, - y IO • ^_I 0 X X ,W-
-*, %^ X i : ^ X --w- I —*— -A, \q, X i
w L 0 K w L K J I M K J I H K G ► E G ► [ C B O 0 C B A p 1 ' 19 • i 17• C
E ^ 0 sot
130• 135• 1•JO• te0• STANIOARD t0• 30• AS' •0• e0• —30 • -10• 0• ELEVATION ^ i 0, ^1• K L M It C D E F• G M 1 J L 1210 0 1 222
Page 3
E-4 Conf. Level Page 4 This Page , MOST SEVERE IMPACT ► 1JLSE TYPE INITIAL VELOCITY v. COEFFICIENT Of WEIGHT AT IMPACT 021 S FRICTION FINAL VELOCITY •^ yo 22^.
1222, — DISTANCE OF PULSE fI OICELERATION LEVEL t^ to Vt V• ",,seee
C^
VELOCITY CHANGE V.-Vt OQ
n
G ^^ .2211 6222 SECOND MOST SEVERE IMPACT PULSE TYPE INITIAL VELOCITY WEIGHT AT IMPACT V0 COEFFICIENT Of FRICTION
AC
u FINAL VELOCITY Vt .M I os I22Y DISTANCE Of PULSE DECELERATION LEVEL C^ V. I. Vt h/see
ute
Vo-vt VELOCIIY CHANGE t ft/sec ft G :220 222.
22]0 P PERTINENT SEARCH & RESCUE 1e0t N O search rec.
A SAN ORGANISATION RCMP 1e MOT o AIRCRAFT PRIVATE AGENCY PROVINCIAL POLICE NOT FOUND FOUND • ► + BY COMMERCIAL AGENCY MUNICIPAL POLICE OTHER v +oe2 C GROUND BOAT GROUNO/AIR SEARCH 8Y AIR AWBOAT I ALL MODES • a c tool L.'F RADIO VISUAL-MIRROR VISUAL- PYROTECHNICS O LOCATING AUTOMATIC C 9 1 VISUAL-SMOKE/FIRE VISUAL-OTHER I METHOD • C VISUAL/WRECKAGE VHF%UHf HOMING OTHER I t.0. Y C IFS TD SEARCH SUCCESS JACCIDENT ACCIDENT TO NOTIFICATION ELAPSED TIME hOr+rO Dave cave Hours - -- x + rr^ .l'11 OT, i DAMAGE/DEFORMATION/LOCATION Our Fide Number Registration Number In:light breakup Yes ;Io Fire in- c- flight Gov't file numoer mQ Fire on ground Wreckage not reed Land Water N b f Ph t um er o 0 os e ono a^ o^ wJ w ^a Cww^.i AM V V V - I^w A - Cockpit B - Cabin 220?
N - Nose C - Aft Fus _ 220; T - Tail Cone 2c'Jto: R - Rt inbd wing
J , 22"" ^-
S - Rt otbd win 2Z,)« L - Lt inbd wing
224 9
M - Lt otbd win
2 214
H - Rt horiz
221-
Position G - Lt horiz @ impact 2212 V - Vertical 2213, ON UP v Main 1dg gear V ^~ 2214 UP ON Nose/tail gear
^r
Inst, Blades Bent no yesl Prop #1 22 2,L
2 22`5
22?7
,2_,g _,^ Page 5 E-6
?are
.w... .......__
undetermined Was ELT required ^es I no T
Was ELT installed , yes Lno I Unk- 1 No ELT data Confidence Level
ELT Data
ELT manufacturer---^—^
model
ELT
-- -
Ps t rrQ i T7 Still 'ir, mount ELT location (use zone code) ves I n ELT antenna location [](use zone code) Still intact
oi
Length of antenna cables = in. Battery exp. datemonths after accident 4 (use neg if before) Battery Installation date
CO
;, Connected after accident es Slack in cable yes no no Attitude @ rest Automatic Automatic Water
ELT type CA] E3ectabl e Fixed Personal Activated
MF
L=^ Unit But No Mounting Second ELTWas it armed?
EI T I ounting provi si = Y
ED Unit yes nol unk
b,'t no unit : o:nd
l
Did it activate?
Any use of fabric or non-metallic material in ELT installation Auto ^' Manual M4 Yes I No activation activation D'Id it aid in search?
Why not?
1_Yes1 nol unk """'-- - Initial alerting Batt. went Unknown A A dead Battery dead Detected by g airborne SAR Antenna Disconn.
Corrosion damage C Antenna Shielded Final homing Insufficient forces to activate Searchers not Voice comm.
Destroyed/ damaged by impact Equipped
D
Broke loose from mounting e Not Required Undertivater
I F
Internal Malfunction Oetafled desc. of antenna i`nst.
Tested OK After Accident Detailed desc. of mounting E-7