Propulsion system study for Small Transport Aircraft Technology (STAT)

APPENDIX A HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION GEARBOX DATA The following sections contain synopses of the gearbox reports written under subcontract by Hamilton Standard6,8. Material which is quoted verbatim is indicated as such. Other material is paraphrased.

STATE-OF-THE-ART GEARBOX The material presented here is representative of current technology and suitable within the 1119 to 1491 kw (1500 to 2000 hp) range.

"The configuration selected as the state-of-the-art gearbox is the offset pinion-bull-star system illustrated in Figure 50 (pg 106). This configuration provides: I) an offset between the input and output shafting to allow access for propeller input signals, 2) a common direction of rotation for the input and output shafts as viewed from the rear of the gearbox, and 3) a self-contained, pressure fed lubrication system except for an airframe mounted heat exchanger. In addition, the gearbox includes an accessory drive gearbox with provisions to drive an AC generator and an aircraft hydraulic pump."

Weight Generalization "In examining the factors affecting the weight of gearboxes, it becomes evident that by far the most predominant factor is the maximum continuous output torque of the gearbox. Accordingly, the generalized weight presentation in Figure 51 (pg 108) shows gearbox weight as a function of the maximum output torque and is based on the offset-star power gear reduction defined above. This relationship can be used to estimate the weight of offset-star gearboxes with reduction ratios of 14:1 to 16.5:1 over the output power range of 1119 to 1491 kW 11500 to 2000 shp). The estimated weight includes the main gearbox, accessory drive gearbox, and lube system pump. The gearbox weight generalization does not include accessories or special accessory drives, input drive shafting, propeller brake provisions, and the airframe mounted heat exchanger."

Efficiency "At the maximum continuous power rating and 100% speed, the estimated efficiency of the gearbox including the accessory drive gearbox and lube pump is 97.8%. This value does not include the power extractions of the aircraft hydraulic pump, generator, and special accessories, i.e., tachometer, cabin supercharger, etc. This efficiency level is believed to be quite representative over the output power range of 1119 to 1491 kW (1500 to 2000 shp) ." ' Cost "The cost per unit weight for offset-star gearboxes within the 1119 to 1491 kW (1500 to 2000 shp) output power range is approximately $507/kg ($230.00 per pound). This value is in terms of a 1979 economy and includes the main gearbox, accessory drive gearbox, and lube system pump."

Reliability and Maintainability "The reliability prediction for the offset-star gearbox is 106.705 repair/replacement events per million hours giving a mean time between failures of 9372 hours. These values represent the repair/replacement events that arise, regardless of cause, for the main gearbox, accessory drive gearbox,

Preceding page blank "

APPENDI X A

HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION GEARBOX DATA - Continued STATE-OF-THE-ART GEARBOX - Continued and the lube system pump. Assuming a consistent design philosophy, these reliability values will be the same for gearboxes in the 1119 to 1491 kW (1500 to 2000 shp) range."

"Maintainability estimates for an offset-star gearbox sized for the 1119 kW (1500 shp) design power level are as follows: Parts cost: $.37 per flight hour (1979 economy) Labor: .021 manhours per flight hour Over the output power range of 1119 to 1491 kW (1500 to 2000 shp), these maintainability costs will vary directly with the maximum continuous output torque of the gearbox."

This maintenance estimate assumes a fixed TBO of 7000 hours.

Scaling Factors The baseline gearbox is sized for a torque of 8508 N-m (6275 ft.lb) and a gear ratio of 15.2:1. Gearbox parameters may be scaled as follows: Parameter Scales As

we ght (Gear Is2Rati°) IJ2

Cost/Ib Constant Maintenance Linear Dimensions "-(_I I/3 At 8508 N.m (6275 ft-lb) and 15.2:1 gear ratio, the important gearbox parameters are: Wt, kg (Ib) 102 (225) Cost, kS 51.8 Maintenance Co_t $_h .38 Frontal Area m L iin ) .197 (306) Height, m (in) .541 (21.3) Width, m (in) .493 (19.4) Offset, m (in) .216 (8.5) ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY GEARBOX Advanced Technology features are offered " ..... that could conceivably be in service in the 1985 to 1990 time period."

Advanced Technology Features -- Identification and Screening "The increased concern with reliability factors and maintenance costs on the part of commercial airline operators has caused a revitalization in design concepting and operating philosophies. In order to remain competitive in a

APPENDIX A

HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION GEARBOX DATA - Continued ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY GEARBOX - Continued market that is faced with numerous constraints as well as soaring fuel costs, it has become increasingly necessary to direct attention toward the selection of reliable, low cost commercial products that are easy to maintain. To this end, the advanced technology items shown have been found to contribute to one or more of the following objectives: 1. Increased reliability.

Improved maintainability.

3.

Reduced acquistion and/or operating costs."

Split Power Gear Train "In this portion of the study, several different gear train configurations were examined including offset-starts, differential, and split power gear reductions. As a result, a split power, compound idler gear reduction was identified as offereing the best balance between weight, cost, maintainability and reliability. Compared to an offset-star design of equal reliability, the split power compound idler gear train (see Figure 50, pg 106) provides a major reduction in the number of gears and bearings and hence offers a significant cost and weight advantage. An added feature of the compound idler design is that it offers an attractive gear ratio arrangement for accessory drives.

Unlike the offset-star gearbox, the compound idler gearbox can accommodate four accessory drive pads without additional gears and bearings since the arrangement of the idlers permits direct access to their respective centerl ines ."

"As with any split power train, the key to a successful arrangement is the the matching of the power split. After assessing the various concepts, a floating pinion design was selected to achieve the split power match. This approach provides essentially equal idler torque even with the offsets due to tolerance buildup and/or load deflections of the idlers. To accomplish this, the pinion is flexibly mounted in the direction of the gear line of action which allows the pinion to move until the load share is equal and the pinion loads are balanced. Furthermore, the pinion is stiffly mounted perpendicular to the gear line of action to provide stability for the in-and-out of mesh direction."

Modular Construction "Replacement of the main gearbox because of an accessory failure imposes an unnecessary penalty on maintainability factors due to the increased manpower requirements, special ground support equipment, and spare parts costs. In order to reduce aircraft downtime and its associated high costs, it is desirable, if not imperative, to modularize all the accessories that are not indigenous to the basic gearbox and locate them such that their removal or replacement can be accomplished without removing the main propulsion components (i.e., propulsor, gearbox, or engine). Hence the following items have been identified as practical and significant contributors toward improved gearbox maintainability: 1 Externally mount all propeller accessories, including the overspeed governor, propeller control, auxiliary pump and motor, and the propeller brake.

APPENDIX A HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION GEARBOX DATA - Continued ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY GEARBOX - Continued .

Provide a modular, bolt-on accessory drive gearbox for the aircraft hydraulic pump and generator for easy field replacement and improved mai ntai nabi I ity.

.

Externally mount the gearbox lube system components including the lube pump with attendant screens and relief valves, oil filter, chip detectors, and magnetic plugs.

, Construct all of the accessories such that their removal and replacement can be performed with a small number of standard tools."

Advanced Lubricants "Dramatic improvements in bearing life could be achieved by using lubricants that exhibit high film strength and flat viscosity characteristics. The high film strength not only spreads the bearing contact pattern, thereby reducing stress, but also prevents small particles from inflicting the surface distress that forms the focal point for material failures. Both of these factors have a direct impact on bearing life. Flat viscosity characteristics, on the other hand, help ensure the same quality of lubrication throughout the normal thermal environment of aircraft components."

High Filtration "Marked improvement in bearing life can also be achieved by reducing the debris (i.e., wear particles) in the gearbox. However, simply installing finer filters within the same envelope would only serve to overburden the filter system and shorten the maintenance interval. The remedy for this is to approach the gearbox with a new philosophy. In the past, changes within a gearbox have generally been made to meet a specific objective or design requirement. By extending this philosophy a gearbox could be approached as a debris generator whereby the sources would be identified and appropriate changes made in those areas that need it to reduce the debris generation. For instance, if it were found that a certain bearing liner exhibited fretting at the housing interface, it would be appropriate to alter the hardness of the liner so as to stop the fretting. As more and more debris sources are treated in this fashion, the overall debris generated in the gearbox could be drastically reduced, thereby allowing the lubrication system to sustain a finer filtration level without penalizing the maintenance interval or the filter envelope."

High Contact Ratio Gearing "High contact ratio gearing offers the advantage of reducing the dynamic load that the gear tooth carries thereby producing a smooth load transmission with less noise and vibration. The narrower teeth and reduced pressure angles typical of high contact ratio gears provide the basis for distributing the load among a larger number of teeth than is possible with conventional tooth profiles. A result of this gearing concept is that it offers reductions in face width approaching 15% with attendant reductions in gear weight."

Lightweight Housing Materials "The use of lightweight materials in the gearbox housings can offer significant weight reduction. The candidates include materials such as z

APPENDIX A HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION GEARBOX DATA - Continued ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY GEARBOX - Continued magnesium, titanium, and composite structures. The weight advantages for magnesium have been well established; however, in order to take full advantage of these benefits, better surface treatments should be developed that will provide the necessary corrosion protection as well as good resistance to handling damage. Titanium and composite structures offer weight savings comparable or better than those for magnesium. However, it was judged that their use was economically impractical for incorporation by the 1985 to 1990 time period."

Bearin 9 Material Properties "The advent of vacuum melt, high purity steels offers dramatic improvements in bearing material properties. However, the extent of the potential benefits has not yet been realized due to the lack of up-to-date material allowables.

In fact, the current published material allowables are, for the most part, based on data developed many years ago for airmelt steels. Hence the need exists to realign the real material capabilities for today's high purity steels to take full advantage of the potential weight savings and extended bearing lives."

On-Condition Maintenance "Fixed time maintenance permits a part or unit to be operated for a prescribed time before discard or overhaul. Although the overhaul period is subject to change in service, useful life is frequently forsaken to assure high reliability and safety. On-condition maintenance, on the other hand, relies on the functional and physical inspections of fleet leader units to provide the basis for extending the inspection period for all service units.

Reliability is achieved through the detection of impending problems so that repair or replacement of the part can be accomplished before failure occurs in service units. An on-condition maintenance philosophy offers a substantial potential cost savings over fixed time overhaul periods."

Selected Gearbox "The configuration selected as the advanced technology gearbox is the split power compound idler system illustrated in Figure 50 (pg 106). This gear reduction provides a major reduction in the number of gears and bearings, improved efficiency because of the fewer gear meshes, and a significant weight advantage compared to the offset-star design of equal reliability. In addition, the compound idler gear is a modular design. A bolt-on accessory drive gearbox and provisions for the propeller control and auxialiary pump/motor are incorporated on the aft side of the main housing. The lube pump mounts on the front housing while provisions for the propeller brake and propeller overspeed governor are also included on the front housing."

"The compound idler design is intended for on-condition maintenance. This design allows for routine maintenance to be performed with a small number of standard tools and includes features such as lubricant sight gauge, chip detectors, lube pressure monitoring, and filters with impending bypass indicators. The lubrication system is self-contained except for an airframe mounted heat exchanger. The major characteristics of this two-stage power gear reduction are shown in Table A-I along with the offset-star character isti cs ."

APPENDIX A TABLE A-I.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS COMPARISON Offset-Star Compound Idler Weight 102 kg (225 Ibm) 89 kg (196 Ibm) No. of gears 9 6 No. of bearings 17 I0 Frontal area .197 m2 1306 in.2.1 .236 m2 1366 in. 2) Overall height .541 m 21.3 in .602 m 23.7 in.)

Overall width .493 m (19.4 in.) .467 m (18.4 in.)

Offset .216 m (8.5 in.) .191 m (7.5 in.)

Weight Generalization "The generalized weight presentation in Figure 51 (pg 108) shows gearbox weight as a function of the maximum output torque and is based on the compound idler power gear reduction. The estimated weight includes the main gearbox with a magnesium housing, accessory drive gearbox, and lube system pump.

Compared to an aluminum housing, the magnesium housing with the advanced treatment offers a net potential weight savings of 5 kg (II pounds)."

Effi ci ency "At the maximum continuous power rating and 100% speed, the estimated efficiency of the gearbox including the accessory drive gearbox and lube pump is 98.3%. This value does not include the power extractions of the aircraft hydraulic pump, generator, and special accessories, i.e., tachometer, cabin supercharger, etc. The increased efficiency of the compound idler design over the current technology gearboxes is primarily a result of the reduced number of gear meshes."

Cost Data "The cost per unit weight for compound idler gearboxes within the 1119 to 1491 kW (1500 to 2000 shp) output power range is approximately $397/kg ($180.00 per pound). This value is in terms of the 1979 economy and reflects production rates of 30 units per month. It includes the main gearbox, accessory drive gearbox, lube system pump, and the advanced technology features described herein."

Reliability and Maintainability "The impact on potential gains offered by both the split power and modular construction concepts is evident from the reliability prediction comparison in Table IV. These values represent the repair/replacement events that arise, regardless of cause, for the main gearbox, lube system pump, and accessory drive system. Assuming a consistent design philosophy, these reliability values will be the same for gearboxes in the 1119 to 1491 kW (1500 to 2000 shp) range."

APPENDIX A

HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION GEARBOX DATA - Continued ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY GEARBOX - Continued "Maintainability estimates for an advanced technology gearbox sized for the 1119 kW (1500 shp) design power level are as follows: Parts cost: $.077 per gearbox flight hour (1979 economy) Labor: .0057 manhours per gearbox flight hour" Recommendations for Further Work "Certain technology items discussed herein require continued development before they become economically attractive. Specifically, the following areas should be further developed."

Bearing Material Properties "As mentioned earlier in this report, existing material allowables for bearing steels are, for the most part, based on data obtained many years ago for air-melt steels. The high purity steels available today potentially offer dramatic improvement in material allowables. Furthermore, today's computer capabilities have greatly enhanced the designer's analytical tools and design methods but the advertised material properties do not appear to have kept up to date. Therefore, in order to fully exploit the potential weight, cost and reliability benefits, it is necessary to quantify the actual material allowables for today's high purity vacuum melt bearing steels."

High Contact Ratio Gearing "Many of the high contact ratio gear applications found today have failed to take full advantage of the benefits offered by this type of gearing. The physical geometry of the gears in these applications has qualified them as high contact ratio gears; however, the design analysis employed was characteristic of that used for conventional spur gears. This has resulted in conservative designs that are heavier than necessary. Hence the advantages that ensue from the reduction in dynamic load are lost to an outdated analysis. Two areas of further attention are recommended: First, update the design methods and analyses to specifically address high contact ratio gears; and second, institute a test program to verify the design methods."

Lightweight Housings "Magnesium housings have offered a distinct weight advantage in aircraft components for several years. One drawback to its use has been the need to provide protective surface treatments to control corrosion. As with most surface coatings, the susceptibility to handling damage is high and special care and repair procedures are often required to preserve the integrity of the coating. It is recommended, therefore, that a program be undertaken to develop a tough, lightweight coating for magnesium that will survive the rigors of a typical maintenance shop."

Advanced Lubricants "Advanced lubricants appear to offer drastic improvements in component life and reliability. Hence, it is recommended that lubricants be developed that possess the characteristics found most suitable for highly loaded power gear applications, i.e., high film strength and flat viscosity characteristics."

APPENDIX A

TABLEA-2.

RELIABILITY PREDICTION COMPARISON Repai r/Repl acement Mean time between Frequency, events occurrence, hours per million hours Main Drive Configuration 9,372 106.705 Offset-star, integral accessory drive system 63. 183 15,827 Compound idler, integral accessory drive system 41.266 24,233 Compound idler, modular accessory drive system

APPENDIXB

HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION PROPELLER DATA The following sections summarize the material provided by Hamilton Standard under contract to NASA and used to establish the characteristics of the propellers in this study.

STATE-OF-THE-ART PROPELLER "The baseline configuration which has been selected is a single acting, aluminum bladed propeller such as has been manufactured by several propeller suppliers and is currently in service on such commuter aircraft as the DeHavilland Twin Otter, the Beech 99, and the Swearingen Metro."

Aerodynamic Performance "Tabulated performance data is provided for current technology propellers in non-dimensionsal coefficients of net thrust coefficient (CTNET) versus power coefficient (Cp) for a range of advance ratios (J) from zero to 3.0 for 3 and 4-bladed propellers of the following blade activity factors (AF) and integrated design lift coefficients (CLi) of 0.40, 0.55, and 0.70. Table B-I is typical of the data provided."

No. of Blades AF 3 100, 130, and 160 4 80, 100, and 120 "A compressibility correction factor (FT) is supplied for use with the current technology propellers. Figure B-1 indicates the maximum free stream Mach number (M) to avoid compressibility as a function of advance ratio (J) for the three selected CLi values. Figure B-2 depicts a delta Mach number (AM) correction as a function of CLi. Figure B-3 allows for the estimation of the FT factor."

APPENDIX B

Continued HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION PROPELLER DATA TABLE B-I ACTIVITY FACTOR_ 0.55 INTEGRATED DESIGN C L 4-BLADED_ i00 PROPELLER PERFORMANCE CT CT C Cp CTNe t j Cp Net J Net J P 0.0482 0.0447 1.6 0.0695 0.0339 0 0.0568 0.1456 0.8 0.1337 0.0744 0.0797 0.0828 0.0737 0.1732 0.2001 0.1121 0.1156 0.1186 0.0926 0.1965 0.2657 0.1466 0.2179 0.1541 0.1525 O. 1170 0.3323 0.1796 0.1484 0.2327 0.1940 0.1844 0.2378 0.2136 0.4006 0.2105 0.1866 0.2456 0.4667 0.2364 0.2850 0.2389 0.2287 0.2531 0.5395 0.2624 0.3347 0.2572 0.2746 0.2559 0.3857 0.2649 0.6084 0.2823 0.3192 0.2565 0.3558 0.2541 0.0407 0.0094 0.1084 1.0 0.0323 0.0158 1.8 0.2 0.0499 0.1134 0.0543 0.0655 0.1354 0.0697 0.0585 0.1913 0.0957 0.0841 0.1626 0.1141 0.0985 0.2692 0.1338 0.1607 0.1355 0.1058 0.1890 0.3464 0.1691 0.2083 0.2093 0.1706 0.1299 0.4246 0.2026 0.2597 0.2025 0.1614 0.2300 0.5015 0.2318 0.1999 0.2480 0.3149 0.2321 0.5815 0.2588 0.2406 0.2580 0.3722 0.2561 0.4264 0.2694 0.2818 0.2605 0.0937 0.0368 0.4821 0.2696 2.0 0.3200 0.2600 0.1836 0.0821 0.2749 0.1238 1.2 0.0536 0.034] 0.4 0.0406 O.O622 0.3643 0.1617 0.0564 0.0931 0.1070 0.0785 0.4542 0.1976 0.1639 0.1194 0.0769 0.1237 0.5855 0.2308 0.2222 0.1527 0.I001 0.1532 0.2821 0.1930 0.1253 0.1812 2.2 0.0773 0.0227 0.2075 0.4117 0.2533 0.1547 0.1797 0.0720 0.4777 0.2740 0.1885 0.2290 0.2853 0.1170 0.5345 0.2782 0.2234 0.2371 0.3891 0.1578 0.2673 0.2470 0.4916 0.1958 O. 2840 0.2620 0.5951 0.2312 0.2640 0.3200 2.4 0.0675 0.0130 0.0337 0.0108 0.6 0.0369 0.0362 1.4 0.1531 0.0532 0.0965 0.0600 0.0564 0.0712 0.2433 0.0905 0.1654 0.1052 0.0819 0.1051 0.3341 0.1254 0.2346 0.1462 0.1110 0.1376 0.4231 0.1576 0.1685 0.3055 0.1850 0.1421 0.5103 0.1878 0.3768 0.2188 0.1972 0.1758 0.5980 0.2167 0.4542 0.2505 0.2229 0.2133 0.5307 0.2754 0.2561 0.2439 0.5997 0.2883 0.3007 0.2551 0.3200 0.2600 rOduced from st available copy.

APPENDIX B

HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION PROPELLER DATA Continued TABLE B-I - Continued 4-BLADED_ I00 ACTIVITY FACTOR_ 0.55 INTEGRATED DESIGN CL PROPELLER PERFORMANCE C T j Cp Net 2.6 0.0968 0.0223 0.1794 0.0576 0.2649 0.0904 0.3510 0.1213 0.4361 0.1503 0.5188 0.1773 0.6010 0.2031 2.8 0.0759 0.0080 0.1473 0.0387 0.2230 0.0674 0.3005 0.0947 0.3784 0.1209 0.4556 0.1457 0.5312 0.1689 0.6046 0.1909 3.0 0.0996 0.0132 0.1810 0.0451 0.2666 0.0754 0.3537 0.1039 0.4410 0.1309 0.5272 0.1565 0.6112 0.1804 .48

V

w INTEGRATED DESIGN C L .40 w .55 .36 .70 w u_ i, x 32

x

.28 .24 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 Figure B-I. Maximum Free Stream Mach Number to Avoid Compatibility Losses as Function of Advance Ratio and Integrated Design C L.

+.06 +.04 +.02

J

AM 0

/

-.02 - .04 - .06 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 CL INTEGRATED DESIGN CLi Figure B-2. Mach Number Adjustment for Effect of Blade Camber.

- 163 4..I oJ NO ,_4-_ _,--t .D • M _ U_ _0 o" I I-I ORIGINAL PAGE iS OF POOR QUALITY

APPENDIX B HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION PROPELLER DATA - Continued STATE-OF-THE-ART PROPELLER - Continued Weight and Cost Generalizations f The formulae used to calculate propeller weight and cost were provided in the Propeller Characteristics section (pgs 110-112). Figure B-4 is the learning curve applied to cost.

Reliability and Maintainability "The current technology propeller system has been analyzed to develop maintenance cost relationships. For this analysis, the current technology propeller system is a single-acting system consisting of a hub, pitch change mechanism, and blade assembly, including deicing hardware. The blades are solid aluminum. Results of the analysis are presented in Figure B-5. The cost relationship was developed utilizing frequencies of unscheduled maintenance actions derived from reliability studies as discussed below."

"Reliability predictions were prepared for the current technology propeller system. The predictions include both inherent failure causes (those primarily caused by propeller equipment failure) and non-inherent failure causes (those caused by other than propeller equipment failure such as FOD, and accident damage) ."

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROPELLER "Propellers for the new and emerging advanced commuter aircraft included in this study, must meet stringent performance and low cabin and far field noise requirements with minimum weight and cost. High thrust levels for takeoff and climb conditions are essential while maintaining near optimum efficiency at the cruise conditions. The tip speeds need to be low and special attention must be paid to the propeller geometry to achieve the low noise requirements called out in the work statement. Moreover, the propeller solidity must be minimal to assure minimum weight. These stringent requirements are unique to the new commuter aircraft propellers and, to meet them, lead to the exploration of advanced technologies as well as the existing technologies not now being incorporated in propellers on today's commuter aircraft."

"In undertaking the task of establishing those advanced technologies with the greatest payoff, it is important to first determine the sources of efficiency losses, noise generation, weight and cost sensitive components. Then a list of potential remedies and new technologies to alleviate these sources and to improve performance, noise, weight and cost can be compiled."

"Thus, performance losses associated with round or thick blade roots can be improved by incorporating reasonably thin airfoils from the tip to the root.

Also the spinner blade juncture should be configured to minimize the spinner-to-blade gap. Profile losses may be reduced by utilizing airfoils designed for high critical Mach numbers. In many applications, new airfoils designed to meet special requirements appear to offer improved performance.

Compressibility losses may be alleviated by utilizing thinner airfoils along the blade, the use of sweep and reduced tip speed. Induced losses may be reduced by use of many blades and by end plates or proplets (akin to winglets on high-speed wings). For high-speed aircraft, Prop-Fans with thin, swept blades and possibly counter-rotation tandem propellers may permit improved performance at reduced size and/or tip speed possibly with correspondingly reduced noise."

I 89% SLOPE 350 UNIT BASE ----ACCUMULATIVE AVERAGE m v

z -

(...} l.l- f._ ;z Z e,.,.

.5 W .3 .2 .1 5 10 20 30 50 100 200 3OO 50O I000 IOO0 1OOOO 100000 NUMBER OF PROPELLERS MANUFACTURED PER YEAR Figure B-4. Learning Curve.

.12

.I0

(29 O --J -r ._J CD _- _ .08 .._I c_ (.3 Z _'- I.-- 0 (._ u _ < .04 " .02 r _N-CONDITION 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 SCHEDULED TIME BETWEEN OVERHAUL (TBO), HOURS Figure B-5. Maintenance Cost per Flight Hour per $i000 Acquisition Cost vs Scheduled Time Between Overhaul for Current Technology Propeller

APPENDIXB

HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION PROPELLER DATA - Continued ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROPELLER - Continued "Noise reduction may be achieved with increased number of blades, sweep, proplets, reduced tip speeds, and in some cases, thinner airfoil sections.

Advanced precision synchrophasers may significantly reduce the cabin noise of multi-engine aircraft."

"Advanced composites offer reduced blade weight, narrower blades required with increased blade number, maintenance of smooth surfaces to alleviate performance losses with time."

"Moreover, the concepts mentioned above may be combined in some cases to produce additional effects as well as to improve performance, noise and weight simul taneousl y."

"A number of these propeller geometric and aerodynamic parameters and new concepts could be included in a list of advanced technologies for commuter aircraft propellers. A list of the more promising parameters and concepts is presented below. Performance, noise, weight, and cost parametric data are presented herein.

1. Blade sweep.

2. Advanced aerodynamic/acoustic airfoils.

3. Blade tip proplets.

4. Multibladed propellers.

5. Narrow blades (low activity factor).

/ 6. Thin blades.

7. Advanced composite structures.

8. Precision synchrophasers ."

"Each of the above technologies have been considered in the study. The state-of-the-art of several of these are only at the initial stages of development. In some cases, the concepts look promising on the basis of rather crude aerodynamic and/or acoustic analyses. Some are still being investigated under this program. Moreover, the advanced technology which have been included in this report are not in all cases based on firm analyses or on experimental data. Yet in all cases, the concepts look attractive enough for consideration and further evaluation."

APPENDIX B

HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION PROPELLER DATA - Continued ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROPELLER - Continued Aerodynamic Performance Performance data tabulations are provided for the same combinations of blade number, activity factor (AF)and integrated design lift coefficient (Cli), as for the current technology propellers*, with the addition of one 6BYad- ed, 75 AF, .55 CLi propeller. "The data represents the imcompressible performance. Corrections are presented to modify the performance data for compressiblity and for advanced technology features."

"To achieve the low activity factor of the six-bladed propeller, it was necessary to increase the airfoil thickness ratios in relation to the higher AF propellers• Thicker airfoils were incorporated directly in the performance predictions for this propeller, but not for the other propellers which are affected. The thicker airfoils lower the propeller imcompressible performance and reduce the airfoil critical Mach numbers. The first of these effects is shown on Figure B-6 as a small correction (ACTN_t _)_ _,,,AF to the incompressible net thrust coefficient. This in ent is subtracted from the tabulated CT@ for the propellers which require thicker airfoils."

This correc_._'_pplies to both adfanced and conventional technology propellers.

"A compressibility correction (FT) is provided for use with the tabulated performance. This correction is obtained from Figures B-7 and B-8 and Figure B-3 of the preceding section for propellers without blade tip sweep. No correction is required for blades with the 45 ° of tip sweep that was incorporated in this study."

"The precedure for calculating the compressible propeller performance is: I • Incompressible CTNet from Tables.

2.

(ACTNet)AF = f(v_vr_ , AF) from Figure B-6.

3.

Corrected Incom. CTNet = Incomp. CTNet + (ACTNet)AF- 4.

AMCLi = f(CLi) from Figure B-7.

5.

AMAF = F(AF, J) from Figure B-8.

6.

MEF F = Flight Mn + AMCLi + AMAF.

7.

FT = f(J, MEFF) from Figure B-3.

8.

Compressible CTNet = FT (Corrected Inc.

CTNet)."

* NOTE: Tabulated performance data provided by Hamilton Standard to General Electric is identical for conventional and advanced technology propellers.

1.0

PERFORMANCE DECREMENT DUE TOTHICKER BLADES

.8

I

I

x Cp J

_ AF !

CTNET

.6 (A )AF- _ J - i

I ACTIVITY ] FACTOR (CTNET)AF = CTNET (ACTNET)AF i

i

.4

/

/ 90

.2

_- lo5

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 m/s

i t I .... J

I I I

0 50 100 150 200 250 (knots) CORRECTED AIRSPEED Figure B-6. Performance Decrement Due to Activity Factor for Subcritical Operation.

.06

/

.04

/

.02 MCLi r

/

-.02

/

- .04 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 INTEGRATED DESIGN CL, CLi Figure B-7. Mach Number Adjustment for Effect of Blade Camber.

.06 .04 !

ACTIVITY FACTOR A MAF .02 ., I 0 1 2 3 4 ADVANCE RATIO, J Figure B-8. Mach Number Adjustment for Effects of Activity Factor.

APPENDIX B HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION PROPELLER DATA - Continued ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROPELLER - Continued Aerodynamic Performance Correction for the Addition of Blade Tip Proplets "The propeller performance can be modified for the addtion of blade tip proplets. The proplet corrections, ACTN_t, is shown in Figure B-9 and was calculated from vortex drag reduction d_ta measured for wings with wing tip sails. The compressible performance of an advanced technology propeller with proplets is obtained from: I. Compressible CTNet = Incomp. CTNet X F T, as shown above.

2. Read ACTNet = f(J, Cp, TAF) from Figure B-9.

Where TAF = Total Activity Factor = AF x No. of Blades.

3. Compressible CTNet with proplets -- Compressible CTNet + ACTNet."

Aerodynamic Performance Correction for the Addition of Propeller Tip Sweep "The performance tabulations are for propellers with straight or unswept blades. Tip sweep is generally not necessary to improve the propeller performance for the low speed airplanes. The major benefit of sweep is to effect relative Mach numbers which are below the critical Mach numbers of the airfoil sections. Therefore, the tabulated data including the low activity factor correction in Figure B-6 can be used to represent the compressible performance of propellers with tip sweep for the low speed airplanes."

Weight and Cost Generalizations See the Propeller Characteristics section (pgs 110-112) for the basic weight and cost calculations.

"Two parameters may be added to propeller design which are not reflected in the generalized weight formula. These are blade sweep and proplets. If sweep is used, add an additional 10% to the weight. If proplets are used, add an additional 5% to the weight."

"Three parameters may be added to the propeller design which will affect the cost and are not reflected in the generalized cost formula. These parameters are blade sweep, blade proplets, and advanced precision synchrophasing."

"If sweep is used, add 5% to the cost of a propeller."

"If proplets are used, add 10% to the cost of a propeller."

"If advanced precision synchrophasing is used, add $5000 to the cost of a propeller."

Reliability and Maintainability "The advanced technology propeller system has been analyzed to develop maintenance cost relationships. For this analysis, a double-acting system consisting of a hub, pitch change mechanism, and blade assembly, including deicing hardware, has been assumed for the advanced technology propeller. The blades are fabricated with advanced composites for the airfoil. Results of the analysis are presented in Figure B-tO. The cost relationship was developed utilizing frequencies of unscheduled maintenance actions derived from reliability studies as discussed below."

APPENDIX B

HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION PROPELLER DATA - Continued

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY PROPELLER - Continued

"Reliability predictions were prepared for the advanced technology propeller

system. The predictions include both inherent failure caused (those primarily

caused by equipment failure) and non-inherent failure causes (those primarily

caused by other than propeller equipment failure such as FOD, and accident

dam age) ."

Combining Various Advanced Technology Features

"It might appear that if a single advanced technology feature produces

attractive results, combining two or more features would be even better. This

is true in some instances, such as combining multi-blades, thin airfoils,

sweep and advanced composite structures, for example. Caution should be

exercised in other instances where the procedures that are presented would

permit the superposition of effects. For example, the practicality of adding

proplets to a swept propeller has not yet been established, and at this time

does not appear to be practical. Only those effects for which procedures are

actually described in the text are considered practical at this time."

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Figure B-10. Maintenance Cost per Flight Hour per $i000 Acquisition Cost vs

Scheduled Time Between Overhaul for Advanced Technology Propeller.

/

i

L

APPENDIX C

ADVANCED ENGINE PERFORMANCE DATA Table C-1 provides a detailed cycle definition of the two advanced engines in the final mission size. Figures C-1 through C-10 provide performance data for the 30-passenger advanced turboprop engine in terms of equivalent power and fuel flow versus altitude, mach number, ambient temperature, and turbine inlet temperature. Figures C-1! through C-2O provide the same information for the 50-passenger advanced turboprop engine. Note that data are provided in the design size. To obtain values in the mission size, scale uninstalled equivalent power and fuel flow by 0.916 for the 30-passenger size and by 0.935 for the 50-passenger size.

Preceding page blank

TABLE CI ADVANCED ENGINE CYCLE DEFINITIONS MISSION SIZE Sea Level, Static, Std. Day except as noted 30-Passenger Size 50-Passenger Size Advanced Engine Advanced Engine 1316 (2400) Turbine Inlet Temp °C (°F) 1260 (2300) 20.2 17.0 Cycle Pressure Ratio Output Power - kW (hp) 15°C (59°F) 1107 (1485 I 1510 202 32.2°C (90°F) 943 (1265 312 (190) 342 (208) Specific Power - kW/kg/S (hp/l bm/sec) .267 (.439) .252 (.415) SFC- kg/kW.h (Ibm/hp.h) Net Thrust - N (Ib) 765 (172) 1156 (260) 381 (1019) Fuel Flow- kg/h (Ibm/h) 296 (652) Booster None i Axial Number of Stages 5.4 (11.8) Inlet Flow- kg/s (Ibm/sec) Inlet Corrected Flow - 5.4 (11.8 kg/s (I bm/sec) 335.3 (II00) Inlet Corrected Tlp Speed m/s (ft/sec) Pressure Ratio 1.35 .872 Adiabatic Efficiency Rotational Speed, rad/s (rpm) 2885 (27560) 2325 (22190) Compressor 3 Ax. + I Cent. 3 Ax. + i Cent.

Number of Stages 5.4 (11.8) Inlet Flow- kg/s (Ibm/sec) 3.5 (7.8) Inlet Corrected Flow - 4.2 (9.3) 3.5 (7,8) kg/s (l bm/sec)

Inlet Corrected Tip Speed 472 (1550) 459 (15o5)

m/s (ft/sec) 640 (2100) 652 (2140) Centrifugal Impeller Corr.

Tip Spee_ m/s (ft/sec) 17.0 15.2 Pressure Ratio .845 .840 Adiabatic Efficiency 5350 (51075) 4780 (45650) Rotational Speed, rad/s (rpm) TABLE CI - Continued 50-Passenger Size 30-Passenger Size Advanced Engine Advanced Enqine 2041 (296)

Discharge Pressure-kN/m2(lbf/in2)1724 (25o)

470 (878) Discharge Temperature-°C (°F) 430 (806) Combustor 4.2 Pressure Loss - % 4•2 .995 .995 Effi ci ency 42800 (18400) 42800 (18400) Fuel Lower Heating Value kJ/kg (BTU/I bin) HP Turbine Number of Stages I [1.59] •102 [2.07] kg °K-b _I(_N.S) .078 Flow Functio_(W/T/P) - [Ibm °R. inZ/(Ibf.sec)] (198) 472 (203) Specific Work (ah) - kJ/kg 460 (BTU/Ibm) Mean Pitch Line Wheel 527 (1730) 540 (1772) Speed - m/s (ft/sec) Loading (_p) •83 .81 4.0 4•1 Pressure Ratio .868 .866 Adiabatic Efficiency LP Tur bi ne 2 3 Number of Stages Flow Function (WJT/P) - • 3 [6.12] .381 [7.78] kg °K.5 _2/(_N•s) [Ibm mR'b inZ/(Ibf.sec)] 321 (138) 381 (164) Specific Work (Ah) - kJ/kg (BTU/I bm) Inlet Temperature - °C (°F) 866 (1590) 916 (1680) Mean Pitch Line Wheel 271 (890) 309 (1015) Speed m/s (ft/sec) •84 .86 Loading (tlJp) 3.5 4.2 Pressure Ratio .916 .915 Adiabatic Efficiency .5 .5 Exit Mach No.

Exit Swirl, - deg.

?ABLE CI - Continued 50-Passenger Size 30-Passenger Size Advanced Engine Advanced Engine Exhaust Nozzle 1.2 1.9 Pressure Loss, 1.10 1.10 Pressure Ratio (P8/PAmb) oc (°F) 586 (1087) 588 (I090) Exhaust Temperature - Secondary Flows* Bleed Axial Compressor Disch.

Returned Post LPT 1.4 1.4 Vented Overboard 0.5 0.5 1.9 1.g Total Bleed Centrifugal Comp. Disch.

Returned Post HPT 6.2 5.75 Returned Post LPT 1.2 1.2 0.25 0.25 Overboard Leakage Total 7.65 7.20 *Expressed as percent of HP compressor inlet flow.

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3OOO X Z Z = 2000 .2 w 1800 0 .1 .2 .5 .6 .3 .4 MACH NUMBER Figure C-11.

50-Passenger Size Advanced Engine - Equivalent Power vs Altitude and Mach Number.

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50-Passenger Size Advanced Engine - Ec]uivalent Power vs Altitude and T4Z.

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× 2300 m W < 2250 Z > 0 .I .2 .3 MACH NUMBER Figure C-15. 50-Passenger Size Advanced Engine - Takeoff Equivalent Power vs Mach Number.

• 195

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Takeoff Fuel Flow vs Mach Number.

!

25O0 X 3 2400 W Z Z W -40 -20 0 +20 +40 +60 -60 Z_AMBIENT TEMPERATURE, OF (°C x 1.8) Figure C-17.

50-Passenger Size Advanced Engine - Takeoff Equivalent Power vs Ambient Temperature.

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3OOO X Z Z = 2000 O Z w 1800 > -60 -40 -20 0 +20 +40 +60 Z_AMB!ENT TEMPERATURE, OF (°C x 1.8) 50-Passenger Size Advanced Engine - Climb Equivalent Figure C-19.

Power vs Ambient Temperature.

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Climb Fuel Flow vs Ambient Temperature.

, ,I{IGINAL PAGE ,P POOR QUALITY i

APPENDIX D HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION STUDY RESULTS Hamilton Standard's results, as provided to General Electric by NASA after completion of the contract effort show significantly greater DOC benefits due to the propeller alone than do General Electric's results (6% versus 1.0 to 1.3%). A large part of the difference can be ascribed to the selection of the baseline level of technology.

Table D-1 compares the baseline selected by General Electric (GE) from data provided by Hamilton Standard (HS) during the contract period with two baselines used by HS in its own studies. Table D-2 compares the GE and HS advanced technology propeller selections. Note here that the basic efficiency data (i.e., exclusive of proplets and tip sweep) provided to GE were identical for current and advanced technology propellers.

The impact on DOC of Hamilton Standard's results in terms of efficiency, weight, price, and maintenance cost changes has been estimated using GE's mission merit factor sensitivities. The HS propellers were scaled into the proper mission size for the GE aircraft. The results shown in Table D-3 indicate that the reasons for the difference with the GE contract results lie in the input, not the evaluation procedure.

TABLE D-1 BASELINE PROPELLER COMPARISON General Electric* Hamilton Standard Baseline Propellers General Aviation Improved Commuter Baseline Propeller Solid Aluminum Solid Aluminum Spar-Shell Constructi on Pitch Control Single Acting Single Acting Single Acting Airfoil Circul ar Airfoil Blade Shank Shape 88-89 84.5 87.5 Cruise Efficiency, % 4 3 3 Number of Blades 100 100 100 Activity Factor Per Blade 256.3 (841) 256.3 (841) 228.6 (750) Tip Speed, m/s (ft/sec) TO 205.1 (673) 205.1 (673) 228.6 (750) Tip Speed, m/s (ft/sec) CR 382.8 (844) 382.8 (844) 272.2 (600) Fuselage Accoustic Treatment Weight, kg (Ibm) *Selected from material supplied by Hamilton Standard.

i_; 201

TABLED-2

ADVANCED PROPELLER COMPARISON Hamilton Standard General Electric** Advanced Propeller Advanced Propeller Composite With Proplets Constructi on Composite With Proplets Double Acting Pitch Control Double Acting Blade Shank Shape Airfoil Airfoil Cruise Efficiency, % 89-90 92.3 Number of Blades 4 6 Activity Factor Per Blade 100 227.1 (745) Tip Speed, m/s (ft/sec) TO 228.6 (750) 221.0 (725) Tip Speed, m/s (ft/sec) CR 228.6 (750) Fuselage Accoustic Treatment Weight*, kg (Ib) w---- Without Synchrophasing 182.9 (600) With Synchrophasing 163.3 (360) of result of "163.3 kg (360 Ib) accoustic treatment weight is GE estimate i0 dB source noise reduction.'

**Selected from material supplied by Hamilton Standard.

TAB LE D- 3 RESULTS ADVANCED PROPELLER - MISSION MERIT FACTOR Mission _0- Passenger Aircraft, 185.2 km (100 nmi) Hamilton Standard Assumptions (Improved Commuter Baseline) % _hange in DOC $264/m j $396/m 3 ($1.00/Gal) ($1.50/Gal) Parameter C han ge +.25 +.28 Propeller Weight, kg (Ibm) +18.1 (+40) +.36 +.30 Propeller Price, $1000 +17.9 +.06 +.05 Propeller Maintenance, $/h +.17 -4.4 -4.9 Propeller Efficiency*, % +5.9 -4.5 -5.0 Fuselage Treatment Weight, Ib -321.6 (-709) -8.2 -9.3 Total *Mission weighted. Includes performance and scaling effects.

AND ACRONYMS

SYMBOLS I ABBREVIATIONS t

AC Aircraft

AF

Propel I er

Blade Activity Factor

APR Automatic

Provisional Rating

B Number of

Propeller Blades

C Constant

Propeller Pricing

Drag Coefficient

CD

CL Climb

Lift Coefficient

CL

Coefficient Propeller Integrated Design Lift

CLi

Propeller Power Coefficient

Cp

CR Cruise

Propeller Net Thrust Coefficient

CTNet

CTOL

Conventional Takeoff and Landing

CW

Counterweights Weight, kg (Ibm)

D

Diameter, m (ft)

DOC

Direct Operating Cost, $/seat.km (S/seat .nmi )

DS Di recti onally Solidified

E

Youngs Modulus, GN/m 2 (Ib/in 2)

ESFC kg/kW-h (l bm/hp.h)

Equivalent Specific Fuel Consumption, Federal Aviation Administration

FAA

Control

FADEC

Full Authority Digital Electronic

FN Net Thrust, N (Ib)

FOD

Foreign Object Damage

FOP

Foreign Object Protector Factor Propeller Compressibility Correction

FT

h Specific Enthalpy, kJ/kg (Btu/Ibm)

HP

High Pressure

HPC

High-Pressure Compressor

HPT

High-Pressure Turbine • 203 ACRONYMS - CONTINUED SYMBOLS_ ABBREVIATIONS_ AND

ID Idle

IGV

Inlet Guide Vane(s)

IPS

Inlet Particle Separator

IRP

Intermediate Rated Power

J

Propeller Advance Ratio

KW

Propeller Weight Constant

L

Length, m (ft)

LP

Low Pressure

LPC

Low-Pressure Compressor

LPT Low-Pressure Turbine

M Mach number

m Mass Flow Rate, kg/s (Ibm/sec) M3 Compressor Discharge Mach number ODS Oxide Dispersion Strengthened OEI One Engine Inoperative OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer P Pressure, kn/m 2 (Ib/in 2) P3 Compressor Discharge Pressure P8 Exhaust Nozzle Discharge Pressure PAMB Ambient Pressure PAX Passengers P/P Pressure Ratio PR Price, $ QCSEE Quiet, Clean, Short-Haul Experimental Engine RV Relative Value SFC Specific Fuel Consumption, kg/kW.h (Ibm/hp.h) SLS Sea Level, Static STAT Small Transport Aircraft Technology T Temperature, °C (°F) T3 Compressor Discharge Temperature SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND ACRONYMS -CONTINUED HP Turbine Rotor Inlet Temperature, °C (°F) T41 TAF Total Activity Factor, AF*B TAMB Ambient Temperature Time Between Overhauls, h TBO Takeoff TO TOGW Takeoff Gross Weight, kg (Ibm) TSFC Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption, kg/N-h (Ibm/Ibf.h) Engine Thrust/Aircraft Weight, N/kg (Ib/Ibm) T/W Pitch Line Wheel Speed, m/s (ft/sec) Up Vo Flight Velocity, m/s (ft/sec) Exhaust Jet Velocity, m/s (ft/sec) vj W Weight or Airflow, kg (Ibm) or kg/s (Ibm/sec) W2 Compressor Inlet Airflow, g/s (Ibm/sec) WA Airflow, kg/s (Ibm/sec) Engine Fuel Flow or Mission Fuel Burned, kg/h, (Ibm/h) o._r.r kg (Ibm) WF Wing Loading; Aircraft Weight/Wing Area, N/m 2 (Ibm/ft 2) W/S Z Propeller Price Learning Curve Factor A Difference, Change P (Ib/in2)/14.696 Effi ci ency T (°F)/518.67 O Density, kg/m 3 (Ibm/ft 3) U/ Turbine Loading : 2l]-pp E 2O5

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