THE AEROSHELL BOOK

future events or other information. In light of these risks, results could differ materially from those stated, implied or inferred from the forward-looking statements contained in this The AeroShell Book. We may have used certain terms, such as resources, in this The AeroShell Book that the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) strictly prohibits us from including in our filings with the SEC. Investors are urged to consider closely the disclosure in our Form 20-F, File No 1-32575, available on the SEC website www.sec.gov. 7 CONTENTS COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ........................................................................................................ 4 DEFINITIONS & CAUTIONARY NOTE ................................................................................... 5 CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... 7 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 14 AEROSHELL TIMELINE ............................................................................................................ 15 GENERAL NOTES ON AEROSHELL PRODUCTS................................................................. 17 DISCONTINUED AEROSHELL GRADES ...............................................................................25 ENVIRONMENTAL NOTES ...................................................................................................29 QUALITY CONTROL, STORAGE, HANDLING AND RETESTING OF AEROSHELL PRODUCTS .............................................................................................................................. 31 RECOMMENDED STORAGE................................................................................................. 38 SHELL AVIATION SERVICE.....................................................................................................39 2. SHELL AVIATION FUELS ................................................................................................................. 46 INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION FUELS .............................................................................. 46 ACCESS TO AVIATION FUEL SPECIFICATIONS ................................................................ 57 AVIATION FUEL ADDITIVES.................................................................................................. 59 FUEL PROPERTIES NOT IN SPECIFICATIONS...................................................................... 61 SHELL AEROJET .......................................................................................................................62 AEROSHELL PERFORMANCE ADDITIVE 101 ........................................................................63 SHELL WATER DETECTOR ..................................................................................................... 67 3. AEROSHELL PISTON ENGINE OILS ............................................................................................. 70 SPECIFICATIONS .................................................................................................................... 71 FUNCTION OF PISTON ENGINE OIL .................................................................................72 APPLICATION ..........................................................................................................................72 UNDERSTANDING MULTIGRADES .................................................................................... 74 UNDERSTANDING ADDITIVES .............................................................................................78 8 OIL SERVICING ....................................................................................................................... 81 LOW OIL TEMPERATURE....................................................................................................... 95 LEAD FOULING ...................................................................................................................... 96 WATER INGESTION IN ENGINE OIL ..................................................................................98 PREPARATION FOR AIRCRAFT STORAGE .......................................................................... 99 RADIAL ENGINES ................................................................................................................. 105 VINTAGE AIRCRAFT ............................................................................................................. 106 NON-AVIATION USE OF AEROSHELL PISTON ENGINE OILS ...................................... 106 STABILITY IN STORAGE ....................................................................................................... 106 AEROSHELL OILS 65, 80, 100 and 120 .............................................................................. 107 AEROSHELL OILS W80, W100 and W120 ........................................................................ 109 AEROSHELL OIL W 15W-50 ................................................................................................. 113 AEROSHELL OILS W80 PLUS and W100 PLUS ...................................................................117 AEROSHELL OIL SPORT PLUS 4 ............................................................................................119 AEROSHELL OIL DIESEL ULTRA ............................................................................................. 121 TYPICAL TEMPERATURE/VISCOSITY CURVES OF AEROSHELL OILS.............................. 123 4. AEROSHELL TURBINE ENGINE OILS .......................................................................................... 126 VINTAGE AIRCRAFT ............................................................................................................. 130 OIL ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................................... 130 APPLICATIONS.......................................................................................................................131 OIL APPROVALS .....................................................................................................................131 TYPICAL PROPERTIES .............................................................................................................131 COMPRESSOR WASHING ..................................................................................................131 OIL CHANGE INTERVAL ...................................................................................................... 132 OIL CHANGEOVER .............................................................................................................. 132 COMPATIBILITY WITH MATERIALS ..................................................................................... 133 NON-AVIATION USE OF AEROSHELL TURBINE ENGINE OILS..................................... 137 AEROSHELL TURBINE OIL 2................................................................................................. 139 9 AEROSHELL TURBINE OIL 3..................................................................................................141 AEROSHELL TURBINE OIL 308 ............................................................................................ 143 AEROSHELL TURBINE OIL 390 ............................................................................................ 147 AEROSHELL TURBINE OIL 500.............................................................................................151 AEROSHELL TURBINE OIL 555 ............................................................................................ 155 AEROSHELL TURBINE OIL 560.............................................................................................161 AEROSHELL TURBINE OIL 750............................................................................................ 167 AEROSHELL ASCENDER .......................................................................................................171 AERO DERIVED IGTs: APPROVED STATUS OF AEROSHELL TURBINE OILS ................... 175 TYPICAL TEMPERATURE/VISCOSITY CURVES OF AEROSHELL TURBINE OILS ............. 177 5. AEROSHELL GREASES................................................................................................................... 180 ABOUT GREASES ................................................................................................................. 180 COMPATIBILITY WITH MATERIALS ..................................................................................... 185 COMPATIBILITY AND INTERMIXING OF GREASES ......................................................... 186 GREASE SERVICING ............................................................................................................ 187 APPLICATIONS...................................................................................................................... 189 AEROSHELL GREASE 5......................................................................................................... 193 AEROSHELL GREASE 6......................................................................................................... 195 AEROSHELL GREASE 7......................................................................................................... 197 AEROSHELL GREASE 14 ....................................................................................................... 199 AEROSHELL GREASE 22 ...................................................................................................... 201 AEROSHELL GREASE 33 ..................................................................................................... 203 AEROSHELL GREASE 58 ..................................................................................................... 207 AEROSHELL GREASE 64 ..................................................................................................... 209 6. AEROSHELL HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ................................................................................................. 214 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................... 214 APPLICATIONS...................................................................................................................... 215 MAIN REQUIREMENTS........................................................................................................ 216 10 TYPICAL PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................ 216 USEFUL OPERATING TEMPERATURE RANGE ................................................................... 216 COMPATIBILITY ..................................................................................................................... 217 CHANGEOVER ..................................................................................................................... 217 COMPATIBILITY WITH MATERIALS ..................................................................................... 217 TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ............................................................................................ 218 HYDRAULIC FLUID CLEANLINESS - SUPERCLEAN PROPERTIES ...................................... 219 AEROSHELL HYDRAULIC FLUIDS IN NON-AVIATION APPLICATIONS ........................ 220 AEROSHELL FLUID 4 ............................................................................................................. 221 AEROSHELL FLUID 31........................................................................................................... 223 AEROSHELL FLUID 41........................................................................................................... 227 AEROSHELL FLUID 61............................................................................................................ 231 AEROSHELL LGF ................................................................................................................... 235 TYPICAL TEMPERATURE/VISCOSITY CURVE OF AEROSHELL HYDRAULIC FLUIDS ..... 237 7. AEROSHELL PRESERVATIVES ....................................................................................................... 240 AEROSHELL FLUID 2XN....................................................................................................... 243 8. OTHER AEROSHELL FLUIDS ......................................................................................................... 248 ABOUT THE FLUIDS ............................................................................................................. 248 AEROSHELL FLUID 3 ............................................................................................................. 251 AEROSHELL FLUID 5M-A ..................................................................................................... 253 AEROSHELL FLUID 12........................................................................................................... 255 AEROSHELL FLUID 602 ....................................................................................................... 257 AEROSHELL FLUID S.8350 .................................................................................................. 259 AEROSHELL CALIBRATING FLUID 2 ................................................................................... 261 AEROSHELL COMPOUND 07 ........................................................................................... 263 AEROSHELL SMOKE OIL..................................................................................................... 265 TYPICAL TEMPERATURE/VISCOSITY CURVE OF OTHER AEROSHELL FLUIDS ............. 266 9. CONVERSION TABLES ................................................................................................................ 268 11 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART ............................................................................. 268 MISCELLANEOUS CONVERSION CHART ........................................................................ 271 10. AVIATION SPECIFICATIONS ...................................................................................................... 274 AVIATION SPECIFICATIONS GUIDE ................................................................................ 274 U.S. AVIATION SPECIFICATIONS ..................................................................................... 279 BRITISH AVIATION SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................... 299 NATO CODE NUMBERS ..................................................................................................... 319 BRITISH JOINT SERVICE DESIGNATIONS......................................................................... 331 FRENCH AVIATION SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................. 343 RUSSIAN AVIATION SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................ 349 AEROSHELL PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS ........................................................................ 363 12 NOTES 14 1. INTRODUCTION Shell companies manufacture and distribute throughout the world a full range of aviation products required for the operation and maintenance of aircraft of all types. This range includes:- Aviation Turbine Fuels Aviation Gasolines AeroShell Turbine Engine Oils AeroShell Piston Engine Oils AeroShell Greases AeroShell Hydraulic Fluids AeroShell Fluids AeroShell Preservatives This manual contains information on the characteristics and specifications of these products and offers guidance on their application. The Specification information provided is correct as known at the time of going to press. Due to the fact that commercial and military specifications for aviation products are subject to frequent changes, it is advisable to consult the local Shell company, whose representative will also give advice on availability (not all grades are always available worldwide), prices and packaging and will be glad to answer any other queries. All reasonable care has been taken in the preparation of this publication; however, no responsibility can be accepted for the consequences of any inaccuracy which it may contain. 15 AEROSHELL TIMELINE 1940s Launch of AeroShell Grease range 1950s Developed Shell Water Detector Launch of AeroShell Oil W range, first to use ashless dispersants for cleaner engines Development of mineral and synthetic AeroShell Turbine Oils 1960s 1960 AeroShell Grease 14 for helicopters approved to MIL-G-25537 1961 Microgel® grease thickener trademark filed 1964 Approval of high-temperature AeroShell Grease 5 & launch of 5-cSt AeroShell Turbine Oil 500, approved to MIL-L-23699A 1965 Approval of AeroShell Grease 6 1967 Approval of AeroShell Turbine Oil 555 for Rolls-Royce Olympus Engines (Concorde) 1970s 1972 AeroShell Grease 7 approved to MIL-G-23827A 1976 Launch of advanced wheel-bearing grease AeroShell Grease 22 1980s 1980s Launch of AeroShell Oil W 15W-50, the 1st semi-synthetic multi- grade aviation oil 1984 Launch of AeroShell Turbine Oil 560, a 3rd generation 5-cSt oil, approved to MIL-PRF-23699 HTS 1985 Shell scientists develop new lithium soap thickener technology for aviation 16 2010s 2014 Launch of AeroShell Grease 58, a Li-Cx wheel-bearing grease exceeding SAE AMS3058 specification 2018 AeroShell Grease 58 approved by Airbus under AIMS09-06-003 2000s 2000s AeroShell Oil Sport Plus 2 and 4 developed with ROTAX, the 1st oils specifically for light sport aircraft engines 2006 Launch of AeroShell Grease 33MS, renamed AeroShell Grease 64 in 2015, an extreme pressure Li-Cx grease, approved to MIL-G- 21164D; AeroShell Oil Diesel 10W-40, now AeroShell Diesel Ultra, developed with SMA and Thielert, specifically for diesel aero engines 2007 Launch of AeroShell Ascender, world’s 1st new TEO approved to SAE AS5780A HPC specification; AeroShell Grease 33 approved by Airbus under AIMS09-06-002 2009 Shell celebrates 100 years in aviation 1990s 1990s Launch of AeroShell Oil W 100 Plus 1995 Launch of AeroShell Grease 33 – 1st lithium-complex (Li-Cx) grease approved to MIL-PRF-23827 Type 1 and BMS 3-33A 1997 AeroShell LGF & SSF approved to BMS 3-32 17 GENERAL NOTES ON AEROSHELL PRODUCTS The notes contained in this section apply to the complete range of AeroShell products. Additional notes specific to each product group are given in the notes at the front of each chapter. Notation The brand names chosen for the range of AeroShell products comprise three parts: the name ‘AeroShell’ followed by the words ‘Turbine Oil’, ‘Fluid’, ‘Grease’, etc. and finally a number and/or letters designating each product. The numbers do not always follow a sequence. In the case of turbine and piston engine oils the number relates to the oil viscosity; for greases, fluids and compounds the numbers merely differentiate between products and gaps occur in the sequence due to obsolescence. Consequently an up-to- date version of this book should always be used for reference purposes. Applications Under this heading the more important and known representative aviation uses have been named for each AeroShell Grade, and these are intended to serve as a general indicator of the type of application for which the grade is normally suitable. Further consultation with the component manufacturer is recommended in case of doubt. Whenever an aircraft is certified, all of the oils, greases and hydraulic fluids used on that aircraft are specified for each application point on the type certificate. The Type Certificate will specify, either by specification number or by specific brand names, those grades which are qualified to be used. The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations state that only grades qualified for specific applications can be used in certified aircraft. Therefore it is the responsibility of the aircraft owner or designated representative to determine which grades should be used. Many AeroShell products are used in non-aviation applications especially where the operating requirements or properties are at the extreme for industrial lubricants (for example, high or low temperatures). Details are not included in this publication but further information is available from local Shell companies. 18 In selecting an AeroShell Grade for a non-aviation application the properties of the grade must be examined. This will only give an approximate indication as to the expected performance in the specific application. However, such data must be regarded as guidance only. There is no laboratory test that can give a complete prediction of performance in the actual use, and the final stage in any decision must involve performance tests in either the actual equipment or in the laboratory/test house under conditions expected in service. Specifications The majority of AeroShell products are manufactured to comply with British or U.S. Government Specifications because these are acceptable to most aircraft manufacturers and airline operators. In certain cases where no suitable specification exists, Shell products have been developed to meet specific performance requirements. Many of the British and U.S. Government Specifications (as well as those of other NATO countries) are interchangeable, although the specifications are not identical. The words ‘approved’, ‘meets’, ‘equivalent’ and ‘corresponding’ have been used in the text to define the relationship between products and specifications; the precise meaning of these terms is as follows: Approved indicates that the product has been manufactured to meet the requirements of the specification, and against which it has been approved (where type approval is required). Meets indicates that the product complies with the requirements of the specification and, either type approval is being obtained, or because the specification is now obsolete, it is not possible to obtain type approval (where type approval is required). Equivalent indicates that the product complies with the major requirements of the specification but has not necessarily been manufactured to the specification. Corresponding indicates that the product has not been manufactured to meet the specification and that it is the nearest product available. The letters ‘DEF’, ‘DEF STAN’, ‘DTD’, ‘DED’, ‘D.Eng.R.D.’, ‘D.Eng.D’, ‘DERD’, ‘CS’, ‘TS’ and ‘BS’ refer to British Specifications; ‘MIL’ and ‘DOD’ refer to American Specifications. 19 As an aid to users, details of French and Russian Specifications are included but specifications of other countries are not included. Over the years, changes were made to both U.S. and British Specifications. The U.S. authorities eliminated the older MIL specifications (e.g. H = hydraulic fluids; L = lubricating oils; G = greases) as they are currently known and replace them with performance specifications. These will be labelled MIL-PRF- followed by a number. Many MIL-PRF- specifications have now been issued and others will follow until all current MIL specifications have been converted. The numeric part of the MIL-PRF- designation is the same as the numeric part of the MIL specification it replaces; however, the letter which denotes the Revision level has also changed. MIL specifications which are cancelled or obsolete will not be changed. A small number of MIL specifications have been converted to MIL-DTL- specifications, where DTL represents ‘detail’. For certain products, the U.S. authorities have decided to no longer maintain military specifications; in these cases, they have been converted to civil specifications by the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers). Examples of these changes include: MIL-H-5606G became MIL-PRF-5606H MIL-L-23699E became MIL-PRF-23699F MIL-G-23827B became MIL-PRF-23827C MIL-T-83133D became MIL-DTL-83133E MIL-G-4343C became SAE AMSG4343 British specifications are being standardised on Defence Standards (commonly referred to as DEF STAN). The changeover is virtually complete and all current DERD, DTD, CS and TS specifications have now been converted to DEF STAN specifications; in doing so, the numeric part has also been changed. Obsolete or Cancelled British Specifications will not be changed. The British Ministry of Defence has also moved away from “qualifying” or “approving” products and no longer issues Qualified Products Lists (QPLs). Instead, the onus is put on the supplier under the new PCC (Product Conformity Certification) scheme to demonstrate that the product supplied is fit for purpose. Instead of QPLs, the Ministry of Defence now holds TAPLs (Technically Acceptable Products Lists). 20 On occasion, the specification on our AeroShell product labels may not always match that on the Certificate of Analysis (COA). In this instance we ask customers to please refer to the COA. AeroShell products are approved to the relevant Military, Civil or Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) Specifications. Whenever a revision is made to a specification, there is a change typically in the last alphabet to denote the latest revision. The COA changes are made earlier than the product label changes. This is because the labels are typically pre-printed on the packaging for supply chain and manufacturing efficiencies. As such, the affected products will have the preceding revision of the specification on the product label, until the pre-printed labels have been used up. For example, the COA for AeroShell Fluid 41 will reflect MIL-PRF-5606J, while the product label will reflect MIL-PRF-5606H. In such occurrences, please refer to the specification revision stated on the COA. This will be the latest revision. Obsolete or cancelled specifications Where specifications have been cancelled and superseded by another, the word “Obsolete” is shown after the specification. Even though the specification is obsolete, Shell may still manufacture the grade to meet the requirements of the obsolete specification and tests each batch of product against these requirements. In the majority of cases, test reports and product containers which normally include the specification number will also carry the annotation “(Obs)” or “(Obsolete)” after the specification. Compatibility of Aeroshell grades with materials Considerable care has to be exercised during selection of materials, including metals, paints, varnishes, insulation materials, plastics and elastomers, to ensure that they are compatible with the chosen lubricant whether it be an oil, fluid or grease. This is particularly important if the product has a synthetic oil component. Since compatibility also depends upon the operating environment, it is impossible for lubricant suppliers to be aware of all possibilities of use. Therefore, it is most important 21 that material or equipment manufacturers are consulted regarding compatibility of oils, fluids and greases with specific materials. Most elastomer manufacturers produce comprehensive tables of compatibility of their elastomers with a large range of products and these tables should therefore be consulted. Where appropriate, more information on compatibility is given at the front of each product section in this book. Rationalisation For many years aircraft operators have been seeking to rationalise the oils and greases used on aircraft and to reduce the number of different products in their inventories. It is possible to achieve this providing either the equipment manufacturer’s approval has been obtained or the alternatives have been listed in the relevant manuals. In some cases equipment manufacturers (e.g. Boeing) are taking steps to reduce the number of different grades required in support of their aircraft. Use of alternative products Apart from those products which are used for the same applications, but under different operating conditions, alternative grades should not be used as a substitute for grades which are not available. Packages Consumers are encouraged to obtain supplies of AeroShell products in the smallest packages commensurate with their use. Small packages which can generally be used as dispensers reduce the risk of product contamination. With larger containers it is usually necessary to decant the contents into smaller containers or jugs which may not always be perfectly clean. In addition, there is a possibility of contamination occurring through the lid or cap being left off or not being replaced properly. 22 Stocks Every Shell company holds adequate stocks of those grades known to be in demand, based whenever possible on the offtake of the previous six months. For grades not in regular demand, special supply arrangements have usually to be made in advance. Temperature and viscosity All temperatures are quoted in Celsius with Fahrenheit referenced in parenthesis. Whilst the more recent British and U.S. Specifications are now based on Celsius temperatures, the earlier specifications are still based on Fahrenheit temperatures. In such cases, whilst it is acceptable to use and quote temperatures in degrees Celsius, the Fahrenheit temperature remains the reference temperature. All viscosities are now shown as mm 2 /s, (millimetres squared per second) This unit is related to centiStokes as follows: 1 centiStoke (cSt) = 1 mm 2 /s Substitutes for Russian aviation lubricants A number of AeroShell substitutes for Russian Grades are available for use in aircraft of Russian origin. Full details of these are included in the Specification Section of this publication and where appropriate the Russian equivalent is shown on each grade page. Further information is available from local Shell companies. Typical properties Typical properties as reported in this publication are determined by averaging actual batch data provided by the manufacturing facilities over a period of time. This data is therefore typical but obviously cannot be guaranteed to be identical to the batches of products provided at any specific time. In some instances, this averaging involves more than one manufacturing facility when products are supplied from a number of facilities. The typical properties for each AeroShell product are also listed on a Technical Data Sheet (TDS). The most updated version of TDS can be found at www.epc.shell.com. 23 It must be emphasised that the data provided in this publication and individual TDS are presented only as a guide for the assistance of AeroShell product users. The actual test values can be found on the Certificate of Analysis (CoA) issued with each production batch. Further information and publications Additional information, changes in approval status, changes in specifications, user experience and other useful data is available from local Shell companies. In addition, brochures and leaflets on particular topics are published from time to time. Copies of any brochure/leaflet are available from local Shell companies or online at www.shell.com/aviation. 24 NOTES 25 DISCONTINUED AEROSHELL GRADES This table lists AeroShell grades which have been discontinued since 1975. Also included are the U.S. and British specifications that the grades were approved to, a description of the grade, plus details about a suitable alternative AeroShell Grade. AeroShell Grade Specification Description/Superseded by Piston Engine Oils AeroShell Oil 65 SAE J1966 SAE Grade 30 straight mineral oil. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Oil W65 SAE J1899 SAE Grade 30 ashless dispersant oil. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Oil Diesel 10W-40 - A fully synthetic, multigrade engine oil designed for use in compression ignition (Diesel) Aviation Piston Engines. Replaced by AeroShell Oil Diesel Ultra. AeroShell Oil Sport Plus 2 - For light sport 2-stroke engines such as the ROTAX ® air and water-cooled series engines. No AeroShell alternative. Proposed alternatives: Pennzoil 2-Cycle Oil for air-cooled engines (in USA); Shell Advance VSX 2 or any Shell Product on Rotax Service Instruction SI- 2ST-008. Turbine Engine Oils AeroShell Turbine Oil 3SP MS-8P MK-8P MS-8RK A 3mm2/s mineral turbine oil with improved anti-wear and antioxidant properties, as well as low temperature properties. Was approved for use in Russian engines which use the Russian grades MS-8P, MK-8P and MS- 8RK. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Turbine Oil 9 DEF STAN 91-097 (DERD 2479/0) A 9mm2/s mineral turbine oil. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Turbine Oil 9B DEF STAN 91-097 (DERD 2479/1) A 9mm2/s mineral turbine oil with an EP agent. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Turbine Oil 529 MIL-PRF-23699F Grade STD Standard grade 5cSt turbine engine oil. AeroShell Turbine Oil 500 is a direct replacement. AeroShell Turbine Oil 530 MIL-PRF-23699F Grade C/I Corrosion inhibited synthetic turbine engine oil. No AeroShell alternative. 26 AeroShell Grade Specification Description/Superseded by Greases Shell Aviation Grease 7 MIL-G-23827B DEF STAN 91-053 A general purpose synthetic grease. Acceptable alternative is AeroShell Grease 7, but the two grades should not be mixed. AeroShell Grease 8 DEF STAN91-054 A grease containing graphite. No direct replacement, although AeroShell Grease 17 may be suitable for some applications. AeroShell Grease 11MS - High load aircraft grease. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Grease 15 MIL-G-25013E DEF STAN 91-055 (Obsolete) A special silicone grease for use over an extremely wide temperature range. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Grease 15A MIL-G-25013E DEF STAN 91-055 (Obsolete) Was previously replaced by AeroShell Grease 15. No current AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Grease 16 MIL-G-25760A (Obsolete) DTD.5579 (Obsolete) Depending on application, AeroShell Greases 22, 33 or 58 may be suitable. AeroShell Grease 17 MIL-G-21164D Replaced by AeroShell Grease 64, but the two grades should not be mixed. AeroShell Grease 22A MIL-G-81322 Replaced by AeroShell Grease 22C, which in turn was replaced by AeroShell Grease 22CF. AeroShell Grease 22C MIL-G-81322 Replaced by AeroShell Grease 22CF. AeroShell Grease 22CF MIL-PRF-81322G Advanced general purpose grease. AeroShell Grease 22 is direct replacement. AeroShell Grease 23 MIL-G-81827A High load capacity grease. Alternative grade was AeroShell Grease 23C. AeroShell Grease 23C MIL-G-81827A Synthetic grease with molybdenum disulphide. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Grease 33MS MIL-G-21164D Product re-named as AeroShell Grease 64. AeroShell Grease 43C SAE AMSG4343 Pneumatic system grease. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Grease S.4768 DEF STAN 80-081 Anti-seize compound. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Grease S.7108 SAE AMSG6032 DEF STAN 91-006 Gasoline and oil resistant grease. No AeroShell alternative. 27 AeroShell Grade Specification Description/Superseded by Fluids AeroShell Fluid 1 DEF STAN 91-044 A light lubricating mineral oil containing, by specification, less than 0.10% mass stearic acid. AeroShell Turbine Oil 3 can be used as an alternative. AeroShell Fluid 1AC AAF.3580D A special hydraulic fluid. No direct alternative although some equipment manufacturers have approved alternative grades. AeroShell Fluid 2F MIL-C-6529C Type II An inhibited “flyaway” lubricating oil for the internal protection of piston engines during storage. Consists of three parts AeroShell Oil 100 with one part AeroShell Fluid 2XN. AeroShell Fluid 2T MIL-C-6529C Type III Corrosion preventative for turbine engines. AeroShell Fluid 2XN is the concentrate from which AeroShell Fluid 2T was made. AeroShell Fluid 2XN MIL-C-6529C Type I Corrosion preventive concentrate. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 4 MIL-H-5606A A mineral hydraulic fluid. MIL-H-5606A is obsolete and has been replaced by MIL-PRF-5606J. AeroShell Fluid 41 is approved to MIL-PRF-5606J. AeroShell Fluid 5L-A MIL-PRF-6086F Light Grade DEF STAN 91-112 Grade L A highly refined, low viscosity mineral oil containing an extreme pressure additive and additives to provide good oxidation and corrosion protection. Also has good low temperature characteristics. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 5M-A MIL-PRF-6086F Medium Grade DEF STAN 91-112 Grade M A highly refined, medium viscosity mineral oil containing an extreme pressure additive and additives to provide good oxidation and corrosion protection. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 7 MIL-H-6083 DTD.5540 A preservative mineral hydraulic fluid. Was previously replaced by AeroShell Fluid 71, no current AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 9 DEF STAN 91-040 A piston engine storage oil. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 10 DTD.791C A wax thickened piston engine storage oil. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 14 DTD.445A A cleaning fluid. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 18 MIL-PRF-32033 Mineral based fluid with corrosion inhibitor & water displacing characteristics. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 51 MIL-PRF-87257B A synthetic hydrocarbon and ester based fluid for use in hydraulic systems. No AeroShell alternative. 28 AeroShell Grade Specification Description/Superseded by Fluids (continued) AeroShell Fluid 61 Type II MIL-H-46170B Preservative synthetic hydrocarbon hydraulic fluid dyed red. Alternative is AeroShell Fluid 61 Type I which is undyed. AeroShell Fluid 71 MIL-PRF-6083F DEF STAN 80-142 A preservative mineral hydraulic fluid of improved cleanliness. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 602 MIL-PRF-87252C A PAO-based fluid blended with additives. Widely used as a cooling fluid for aircraft avionics system. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Fluid 634 MIL-PRF-63460D Cleaning, preserving and lubricating fluid. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Shock Strut Fluid (SSF) BMS 3-32 Type I A mineral hydraulic fluid (MIL-PRF-5606) to which additional additives have been added to improve the extreme pressure characteristics and the fluid's natural lubricity. No AeroShell alternative. Others AeroShell Compound 01 - A quick drying preservative fluid. In many cases, two coats of AeroShell Compound 02 can be used in place of Compound 01. AeroShell Compound 02 MIL-PRF-16173E Grade 2 DEF.2331A A quick drying lanolised fluid that provides temporary protection against corrosion. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Compound 05 DEF STAN 80-085 A petroleum jelly/beeswax mixture for protecting metal parts against corrosion under temperate and tropical conditions. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Compound 06 - Denatured ethyl alcohol. Refer to AeroShell Compound 06A. No AeroShell alternatives, but 100% isopropyl alcohol could be used as replacement. AeroShell Compound 06A BS.1595 A de-icing fluid for windscreens, carburettors and propellers. No AeroShell alternatives, but 100% isopropyl alcohol could be used as replacement. AeroShell Compound 08 SAE AMS2518A DEF STAN 80-080 Graphited anti-seize compound. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Compound 09 MIL-M-7866C Molybdenum disulphide powder. No AeroShell alternative. Shell Compound S.7632 MIL-A-8243D De-icing fluid. No AeroShell alternative. Shell Aviation Fluid S.7229 - A compressor wash fluid. No AeroShell alternative. AeroShell Performance Additive 101 - For military use of JP-8 as fuel stability improver. No AeroShell alternative. 29 ENVIRONMENTAL NOTES In many countries there has been increasing interest in health, safety and environmental issues arising from the handling and use of oil products. Of late, legislation in many countries has changed, or is changing, with the result that information quickly becomes either out of date or is insufficient for a particular area.  All AeroShell components registered in U.S. and Europe and increasingly in other countries such as Japan, China, Australia, Korea  Safety Data Sheets are available for all grades  Storage and handling information available to operators  Labelling standards Many countries now require Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) to be prepared for individual products and for these documents to be readily available to the users of the product. Safety Data Sheets are available for all AeroShell grades and copies of these can be made available by local Shell companies. Where necessary, local Shell companies will ensure that any document they supply will comply with local legislation. If no local legislation exists then the data will be in accordance with the requirements of the European Community. These Safety Data Sheets contain information on:-  Composition/information on ingredients  Hazard identification/Dangerous Goods classification  First Aid measures  Fire Fighting measures  Accidental release measures  Exposure control/personal protection  Toxicological information  Ecological information  Disposal considerations  Regulatory information 30 These Safety Data Sheets are revised and re-issued whenever there is a change in the legal requirements and thus operators should always ensure that they are in possession of the latest edition. They can be accessed via www.epc.shell.com. Safety Data Sheets are intended to act as a guide to users of Shell Aviation products and whilst the information is given in good faith, any remedial action must be the responsibility of the persons concerned and “Shell” cannot be responsible for any loss or damage resulting from any action taken. 31 QUALITY CONTROL, STORAGE, HANDLING AND RETESTING OF AEROSHELL PRODUCTS Generally, AeroShell products are very stable and do not normally deteriorate if stored and handled correctly. Owing to the nature of aviation there is a need to adopt procedures which enhance safety requirements and ensure product quality. Thus these recommendations must be considered as minimum requirements and any local requirements (e.g. ISO 9000, governmental and/or aviation authority requirements) which are more stringent take precedence. Quality control All AeroShell products are blended in batches with each batch composed of the identical formulation to all previous batches. A range of tests are performed on each batch to evaluate the physical, chemical and performance characteristics of the product. Historically, the batch-to-batch variations are minor and within the limits of test repeatability. As each batch is prepared, a small quantity of product is set aside in sealed containers. These are then kept for a period of time in order to provide a reference base. Each released batch is then filled in the various pack sizes in which it is sold. The date on the Certificate of Analysis (CoA) provided with the product is the date on which the product was tested and released by the laboratory. This date may not be exactly the same as the manufacturing date as some of the laboratory tests employed could be of a week or more duration. Once the product is released, it is filled into those pack sizes required by our inventory control system necessary to maintain suitable stock levels. A worked example is that 50% of the original batch may initially be filled off into 1 USQ tins and a fill date and batch number assigned. After a period of time the system may then require the remaining 50% of the batch to be filled off into 55 USG drums and again a fill and batch number is assigned with full traceability within our quality system to original batch number. 32 This may result in the filling date on the label of the container being slightly different to the testing date on the CoA. This is normally no more than two weeks difference at the most but occasionally could be as long as 4 weeks depending on the stock levels of various pack sizes in our warehouse. Equally as important as good quality control during the blending and filling operation is correct storage and handling of the product prior to use. Customers can enhance the product storage by using first-in, first-out inventory procedures and maintaining the oil under normal storage conditions (i.e. indoors, protected from excessive heat, moisture and dust) and full details of the recommended storage, handling and retesting procedures are given in this section. Product quality In making any product which conforms to a military specification, a manufacturer can choose either to just barely meet the specification or to exceed the specification performance requirements. When a product exceeds the specification minimum requirements, the customer is provided with extra protection. The majority of AeroShell branded products exceed the specifications against which they are approved and have become acknowledged as industry standards. The products which Shell companies supply for military use are the same products supplied to commercial customers. The fact that the AeroShell products perform well in commercial operations further attests to the quality cushion which is provided to the military organisation using them. Importance of correct storage and handling The importance of correct storage and handling cannot be over emphasised. Shell manufacturing plants pay particular attention to quality control throughout the entire manufacturing, blending and filling process of all aviation products. Rigorous checks take place during these operations and thorough testing before release of a product ensures that it meets the requirements of the specification and is fit to do the job for which it is intended. It is therefore very important that operators and users of these products take equal care when handling and storing these products so that they remain in first class condition. 33 The most common problems Deterioration of product quality arises mainly from contamination by water and/or dirt, and by temperature extremes during storage. In addition, deterioration can occur through the container being badly dented or damaged. Invariably, the sharp corners of dented or damaged containers are places of weakness where pinholes easily occur and rust readily forms. Water contamination Contamination by water can occur in two ways: By ‘breathing’ of the container. In principal this happens when a container is stored in the open air. It may then be subjected to wide temperature changes (this includes, for example, the variation between daytime and night time temperature). At elevated temperatures the contents of the package will expand, and the layer of air above the oil will try to find a way out. With drums this is even possible through well sealed bungs. When cooling takes place, humid air often has the opportunity to penetrate into the drum, where the moisture then condenses out and the product becomes contaminated. Initially no more than a few droplets may be introduced, but with time the amount progressively increases and the contamination becomes significant and can lead to internal rusting of the container. By penetration of water present on top of the container. Containers are carefully and thoroughly sealed after filling. However, if either breathing or if rusting (leading to pinholes in the container) has occurred, it is possible for water present on top of the container to penetrate the container and contaminate the product. Preventing water contamination is simple: Store the product in a warehouse immediately after receipt. The warehouse should be dry, clean and not subject to wide temperature changes.  Drums must be placed horizontally with the bungs at the ‘quarter to three’ position, to help ensure the gaskets are kept in contact with the oil in the drum.  Pails and cartons must be stored in such a way that they cannot be damaged. 34 Contamination by dirt Dirt cannot normally penetrate to the contents of a container until it has been opened. The dirt present in a dusty atmosphere will settle upon the surfaces of containers. Do not remove product from such containers without first having taken the proper precautions.  Prevention AeroShell products should be stored in a dry, dust-free warehouse. Before a container is opened the top should be thoroughly cleaned. In the case of drums it is recommended that the whole top, and particularly the area around the bungs, should be thoroughly cleaned.  Greases Greases require special precautions. Grease containers should never be opened in a dusty atmosphere. Before removing the contents, make sure that the equipment to be used for this is clean and free from dust and dirt. A wooden scraper is generally not recommended because it leaves small particles of wood mixed in with the grease which could affect the performance of the product. In order to prevent oil separation into the hole from which grease has been removed, the surface of the product should be flattened out. Therefore: Always leave a smooth surface, and close the container after use! Oil separation to a greater or lesser extent occurs with all greases. Unless the separation is excessive the grease can be used providing it is stirred well before use.  Superclean Hydraulic Fluids Superclean hydraulic fluids, as the name implies, are hydraulic fluids which are exceptionally clean. This is achieved by extensive filtering of the fluid, thorough cleaning of containers, and packing in a clean room. In view of this, particular care should be taken when opening the containers since it is all too easy for the fluid to lose its superclean properties. It is recommended that for superclean fluids a dispensing device, which includes fine filtration, is used. 35 Storage temperatures Aviation lubricants should not be stored in the open air. Even inside warehouses, strong sunlight entering through windows and open doors can cause prolonged high temperatures on the surfaces of containers, which may affect product quality. Accordingly, containers should be kept in a shaded location. A constant ambient temperature between 0°C to 40°C (32°F to 104°F) is recommended. Certain aviation products (in most cases for ground application) are affected by extremes of cold. Such low temperatures can inhibit the performance of these products and make them either difficult to pour, or difficult to use. Shelf life, periodic inspection and re-testing It is very important that no misunderstanding should ever arise over the contents of a container. Issue of an incorrect product from the warehouse should be prevented at all costs – especially for aviation applications. Great care must therefore be taken to ensure that the right product is received in the first instance. Furthermore, after products have been received, markings on containers and cartons should be kept legible; if necessary, they should be re-stencilled. If a product is in store for a prolonged period of time, it is important to determine that it is still suitable for use. At regular intervals (exact time is for the user’s decision, but it could be every quarter or every six months) a visual inspection of the outside of the cartons (for small packs) or containers (if drums or pails) should be undertaken checking for signs of leaks or damage. Those which are leaking or badly damaged should be downgraded for non- aviation use or destroyed in accordance with local environmental regulations. If product is still in stock after a number of years, then it is necessary to take samples and test key properties to verify that the product continues to be fit for purpose. For the majority of AeroShell grades, representative samples from each batch should be re-tested after the specified time from date of manufacture or, if not known, date of order or date of receipt can be used instead. Different products are subject to different re-test periods; similarly, the tests which need to be carried out on a product to verify its continued suitability for use depend on the type of product and field experience developed over the years. The re-test periods and the 36 tests required for AeroShell products are based primarily on those specified in the latest issue of NATO Standard AFLP-4714 (Allied Fuels and Lubricants Publication) titled “Minimum Quality Surveillance for Lubricants and Associated Products”. They are listed in the table below: Product Initial Retest Period (years) All AeroShell piston engine oils 4 AeroShell Oil Sport Plus 4 4 AeroShell Oil Diesel Ultra 4 All AeroShell mineral turbine engine oils 4 All AeroShell synthetic turbine engine oils 6 AeroShell Fluids 4,41,31 3 AeroShell Fluids 61, LGF 4 AeroShell Fluids 2XN, 3, 5M-A, 12 4 AeroShell Fluids 602, S.8350 3 AeroShell Compound 07 2 AeroShell Calibrating Fluid 2 2 All AeroShell greases have a maximum shelf life of 6 years, no retest is required. AeroShell Smoke Oil has a maximum shelf life of 10 years, no retest is required. Note: In some countries, the local military authorities may adhere to re-test limits more stringent than those listed above, and these would need to be applied when supplying product to them. The first re-test date shall be at the original frequency stated above. Subsequent re-tests shall follow at half that frequency. For example, the original re-test period for AeroShell Oil W100 is 4 years; thus the first re-test is due 4 years after date of manufacture with the next re-test 2 years later, with subsequent re-tests following every 2 years thereafter. 37 Normally there is no requirement to do a full specification test since in many specifications there are tests which are difficult/complex to do or which involve specialised hardware. Generally these can only be done by an oil products laboratory which specialises in aviation oils and greases. Instead, a reduced set of tests is specified for each product which focuses on those properties which would reveal any deterioration that has occurred in the product over the period in storage. In some cases, the cost of re-testing can be higher than the value of the product in stock; in such situations it is doubtful that it makes economic sense to re-test the product and it should be downgraded or disposed of. Where re-testing is undertaken, then samples from each and every batch involved must be taken according to the cube root rule to determine how many containers need to be sampled. All re-test results should be compared with the relevant specification requirements and, more importantly, with the original certificate of quality to assess if deterioration has occurred. Based on this comparison, a decision can then be made as to the suitability of the product for continued use or whether further testing is required, or if the product should be downgraded or disposed of according to local environmental regulations. Note: As a best practice, in the NATO Standard for lubricants and associated products, the product is no longer authorised for servicing after 72 months from date of fill. To sum up In general, AeroShell products are inherently stable. If stored properly, their quality, properties and performance should not be affected by prolonged storage. For greatest economic efficiency, it is recommended that products should be issued from the warehouse in the order in which they were received. In other words: FIRST IN – FIRST OUT If, for some reason, a product has to be stored for longer than is economically desirable, and some doubt arises about its quality, it is recommended that Shell technical staff should be contacted for information about the product’s continued suitability for aviation applications. 38 RECOMMENDED STORAGE A constant temperature should be maintained throughout the year if necessary, by means of heating or air conditioning. Good ventilation highly desirable. Good lighting should be provided also an electricity connection and a water supply. A lock should be provided to secure the warehouse. The room must be spacious enough to permit the handling of drums and other containers, and such tasks as tapping oil and opening tins. It should be big enough to allow easy access to the stored containers. A pump and other useful tools should be present. Fire extinguishers of the foam, dry powder or carbon dioxide type should be located at accessible spots. The room must be dust-free, accordingly it should be tiled or treated with a suitable paint. 39 SHELL AVIATION SERVICE Shell Aviation is committed to meet or exceed industry standards at all locations. Aircraft operators may be assured that everyone concerned with the handling and dispensing of Shell Aviation fuels realises that the safety of each aircraft they refuel is dependent upon their skill, knowledge and ability. Fuels, fuelling methods and equipment are continually being developed and improved by Shell to meet the ever-increasing demands of modern aircraft and the aviation industry. Careful design of fuelling facilities, good operating procedures and thorough training of personnel are high on Shell’s list of priorities. Included in this section are details of the care and attention paid by Shell to ensure that only clean, dry fuel to the correct specification is safely delivered into aircraft. Types of aviation fuel There are two categories of aviation fuel in common use today: aviation gasoline (known as Avgas) and turbine fuel or jet fuel. Details of these are given in the relevant fuels section in this handbook. Identification of aviation fuels The various grades of aviation gasoline are coloured to aid recognition. These colours have been established by international agreement. Turbine fuels, however, are not dyed and are generally colourless. In addition to fuel identification by colour, a marking and coding system has been adopted to identify the various airport fuel handling facilities and pieces of equipment according to the fuel they contain. For example, leaded aviation gasolines are identified by name, using white letters on a red background; in contrast, turbine fuels are identified by white letters on a black background. All parts of the fuelling facility and associated equipment where an error might occur, no matter how remote the possibility, are identified and labelled in the same marking and colour code. In addition, wherever possible, selective couplings are used to prevent the transfer of one grade into another. 40 Quality assurance The Shell Aviation Service is designed to ensure that aviation fuels are at all times delivered into aircraft on specification and in a clean and dry condition. Shell operates throughout the world according to the standards set out in the Shell Aviation Quality System and the Shell Airport Operations Manual. Regular audits by Shell Aviation personnel are made to ensure Shell’s standards are maintained at all of Shell’s locations worldwide. SAFETY IN FUELLING OPERATIONS Delivering the Correct Grade of Fuel Before delivering any fuel into the aircraft, the fuelling crew need to confirm with certainty the correct grade and quantity of fuel required. This is particularly important when fuelling general aviation aircraft over-wing. There is a particular problem present when refuelling types of aircraft which are outwardly similar, but require different fuels – typically spark ignition piston engines that may require avgas, or similar aircraft with either compression ignition piston engines or turboprop engines that require jet fuel. They look similar and the spark ignition piston engine type may be turbo-charged, with large lettering on the cowlings saying “TURBO”, bringing potential confusion between gasoline fuelled engine which is fitted with a turbocharger and jet fuelled turboprop. To prevent misfuelling aircraft during over-wing fuelling, Shell Aviation requires that at least 2 out of the following criteria are satisfied for each and every fuelling: 1. A grade selective nozzle shall be fitted. 2. There shall be a decal next to the fuelling point on the aircraft specifying the grade of fuel required. 3. A Fuel Order Form has been completed and signed by an authorised member of the aircraft crew. If the grade marking or Fuel Order Form is not available, no fuel will be delivered. Aircraft operators should therefore make certain that all fuelling points on their aircraft are clearly marked with the correct grade of fuel. 41 Facilities Shell sets high standards for the facilities used to handle aviation fuels. Storage depots are designed to store optimum quantities of fuel at the high standard required by the Shell quality assurance system. Mobile equipment used to deliver fuels to customers’ aircraft is designed to ensure speedy, safe and efficient service. For both fixed and mobile equipment the emphasis is on achieving the correct balance between simplicity and sophistication. To help achieve this, Shell maintains contacts with equipment suppliers around the world and is active in international organisations responsible for equipment standards. Good initial design and high standards of construction are complemented by regular testing and maintenance of all critical pieces of equipment. Experience and Training Shell has been in the aviation fuel business for more than 110 years and during that time it has built up a wealth of experience. This is communicated to all Shell locations by means of manuals, training courses and periodic publications and which is furthermore backed up by the extensive research facilities of Shell Group. Shell staff are fully aware of all aspects of safety required for the storage, handling and dispensing of aviation fuels. Fire Aviation gasolines and Jet B are extremely hazardous unless handled correctly; jet fuel, although less volatile than gasoline, also requires safe handling to avoid hazard. Shell refuelling crews are trained to handle fuels safely but, as a precaution, training in fire fighting is given, with regular fire drills held and crews made fully familiar with the operation of the fire extinguishers carried on all of Shell’s fuelling vehicles. The following points are worth remembering: Fuel Vapour + Air + Spark or Flame = Fire 42 Every effort must be made therefore to prevent fuel spillage and subsequent vapour escape. Equally important are the procedures for the prevention of spark generation or naked flames near the airport apron or fuelling facilities. These are as follows: 1. No smoking or carrying of matches or lighters. This applies to all persons in the vicinity during fuelling operations. 2. Prevention of electrostatic sparks by careful bonding of fuelling equipment to aircraft. 3. Safe, well maintained equipment, e.g. motors and electrical circuits. 4. No fuelling whilst aircraft engines are running (unless special procedures are in force). 5. No fuelling whilst anti-collision strobe lights are operating (general aviation aircraft only). 6. Personnel must not wear nailed footwear or nylon clothing. 7. Care with mobile phones or any electrical equipment that could cause a spark. Static Electricity Matches, cigarette lighters, smoking, open flames and even backfires from vehicles or aircraft are obvious sources of ignition. Another source, not so visible or obvious, is the spark created by static electricity. Static electricity charges are generated in various degrees whenever one body passes through or against another. An aircraft in flight through the air, a fueller driving on a roadway, the rapid flow of fuel through a pipe or filter, and even the splashing of fuel into a fueller or aircraft during loading and fuelling operations, generates static electricity. A greater generation of static electricity may be expected when handling turbine fuels than when handling aviation gasoline; a basic reason for this is the higher viscosity of the fuel. Large turbine-powered aircraft demand large quantities of clean, dry fuel. The high-speed fuelling rates and the flow through ultra fine filter/separators required to meet this demand for cleanliness can create significant static electrical charges. Some of the hazard from the charging of the fuel itself is reduced by the use of a static dissipator additive. However, it is worth noting that a static charge may still accumulate on the aircraft during flight or on the ground due to air friction and in this case the presence of a static dissipator additive in the fuel cannot help. To minimise this hazard, it is necessary to create an electrical circuit to equalise static electrical charges before they 43 build up to a high enough potential to create a static spark. This can be accomplished by bonding the fuelling vehicle to the aircraft with a cable and allowing sufficient time for the charge to equalise before performing any act which may draw a spark. The flow of an electrical charge from a body of fuel or an aircraft is not always an instantaneous act as is commonly believed. It may take several seconds to equalise all the charge from some fuels. When handling all aviation fuels, the following procedures are adopted: 1. Connect the bonding wire from the fueller or cabinet to the aircraft. 2. In the case of overwing fuelling, connect the fuel nozzle bonding wire to the aircraft before the tank cover is opened (underwing couplings do not need to be individually bonded to the aircraft). 3. When disconnecting, reverse the order. It cannot be emphasised too strongly the hazard present from static electricity when moving any hydrocarbon product. Many accidents outside airfield operations, in the home and at work, are caused by the mishandling of fuels. Remember: If it’s metal, bond it. If it’s plastic, don’t use it!!! 44 NOTES 46 2. SHELL AVIATION FUELS INTRODUCTION TO AVIATION FUELS Shell Aviation fuels may be classified into two basic groups: aviation gasoline, for use in spark ignition piston engines; aviation turbine fuels (jet fuels), for use in turbofan, turbo jet,turboprop and turboshaft engines. Jet fuels are also certified by Aviation Authorities for use in compression ignition piston (diesel) engines, although the jet fuel specifications do not designed for this purpose. The various grades of each type available are described in this section. All Shell Aviation fuels are produced to meet the stringent manufacturing requirements set out in the relevant specifications. At key stages between refinery and aircraft tank, fuel quality is checked by sampling and on-site or laboratory testing, to ensure that the fuel conforms to the requirements specified for the grade when it is delivered to the aircraft. The Shell Aviation Quality Assurance System is organised on a worldwide basis, made easier because Shell Aviation Service is provided directly in many countries of the world. Aviation Turbine Fuel (Jet Fuel) Today’s kerosene ‘Jet’ fuels have been developed from the illuminating kerosene used in the early gas turbine engines. These engines needed a fuel with good combustion characteristics and a high energy content. The kerosene type fuels used in civil aviation nowadays are mainly Jet A-1 and Jet A. The latter has a higher freezing point (maximum –40°C (–40°F) instead of maximum –47°C (–53°F)) and is available only in the U.S.A. Major Civil Jet Fuel grades Jet A-1 Jet A-1 is a kerosene grade of fuel suitable for most turbine-engined aircraft. It has a flash point minimum of 38°C (100°F) and a freeze point maximum of –47°C (–52°F). It is widely available outside the U.S.A. The main specifications for Jet A-1 grade (see below) are the UK specification DEF STAN 91-091 (Jet A-1) NATO code F-35, (formerly DERD 2494) and the ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1). 47 Jet A Jet A is a kerosene grade fuel, normally only available in the U.S.A. It has the same flash point as Jet A-1 but a higher freeze point maximum (–40°C/–40°F). It is supplied against the ASTM D1655 (Jet A) specification. Jet A is used within the United States by domestic and international airlines. Jet B Jet B is a distillate comprising naphtha and kerosene fractions. It can be used as an alternative to Jet A-1, but because it is more difficult to handle (higher flammability), there is minimal demand and availability for this grade of fuel. The only significant area of use is in very cold climates, such northern Americas, where its better cold weather performance can be preferred. Jet B is specified by ASTM D6615, but in Canada it is supplied against the Canadian Specification CAN/CGSB 3.23 TS-1 TS-1 is the main jet fuel grade available in Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States. It is a kerosene type fuel with slightly higher volatility (flash point is 28°C (82°F) minimum) and lower freeze point (<–50°C/–58°F) compared with Jet A-1. It is supplied against the GOST 10227 specification. No.3 Jet Fuel No.3 Jet Fuel is the main Chinese grade which is essentially equivalent to Jet A-1. American Civil Jet Fuels The basic civil jet fuel specification used in the United States of America is ASTM Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels ASTM D1655, which defines the requirements for the two grades of fuel – Jet A and Jet A-1 (Note: ASTM D1655 formerly included Jet B but this grade is now covered by a separate specification ASTM D6615). 48 Alternative and Sustainable Aviation Fuels A recent development for jet fuels is the approval of alternative blend components. Unconventional blend components, including those derived from Fischer-Tropsch synthesis or some renewable bio-routes, are covered by a new specification, ASTM D7566. In this specification, blend components are defined and controlled in the Annex section, along with the blending limits. Once blended, the finished fuels must meet the test requirements in the main table of ASTM D7566, which includes all of the testing requirements of ASTM D1655 plus some additional parameters. Once a finished fuel is certified to ASTM D7566 it can be recertified as ASTM D1655, thereby allowing the fuel to be handled and mixed with conventional jet fuel batches and, furthermore, not requiring any change in the certification of either aircraft or engines. Research and testing continues to prove the suitability of new processes and source materials for use in jet fuel and, as this work progresses, the scope of ASTM D7566 will continue to be expanded to accommodate these changes. UK Jet Fuels Although developed originally as a military jet fuel specification by the UK Ministry of Defence, DEF STAN 91-091 (originally DERD 2494) has been adopted as the standard UK civil jet fuel specification. It defines the requirements for a kerosene type fuel (Jet A-1 grade) having a maximum freeze point of –47°C (–52°F). Jet A-1 according to the DEF STAN 91-091 specification is essentially the same as Jet A-1 defined by the ASTM D1655. Russian and East European Jet Fuels Russian kerosine type jet fuels are covered by a wide range of specification grades reflecting different crude sources and processing treatments used. The grade designation is T-1 to T-8, TS-1 or RT. The grades are covered either by a State Standard (GOST) number, or a Technical Condition (TU) number. The limiting property values, detailed fuel composition and test methods differ quite considerably in some cases from the Western equivalents. 49 The principle grade available in Russia and other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is TS-1 (written as TC-1 in Russian script). The main differences in characteristics are that Russian fuels have a low maximum freeze point (equivalent to about –57°C (–70°F) by Western test methods) but also a low flash point (a minimum of 28°C (82°F) compared with 38°C (100°F) for western fuel). RT fuel (written as PT in Russian script) is the superior grade (a hydrotreated product) but is not produced widely. TS-1 (regular grade) is considered to be equivalent to Jet A-1 and is approved by most aircraft manufacturers. In some locations in Russia and for exports, product may be supplied against the Russian Jet A-1 specification GOST 52050-2006 which is aligned with DEF STAN 91-091. Eastern European countries have their own national standards with their own nomenclature. Many are very similar to the Russian standards, but others reflect the requirements of visiting international airlines and are similar to Jet A-1 in properties and test methods. Chinese Jet Fuels Five types of jet fuel are covered by current Chinese specifications. Previously, each grade was numbered with a prefix RP; however, they are now renamed No.1 Jet Fuel, No.2 Jet Fuel, etc. RP-1 and RP-2 are kerosenes which are similar to Russian TS-1. They both have low flash points (minimum 28°C/82°F). RP-1 maximum freeze point is –60°C (–76°F) and that of RP-2 is –50°C (–58°F). RP-3 is essentially the same as Jet A-1. RP-4 is a wide-cut type fuel similar to Jet B and Russian T-2. RP-5 is a high flash point kerosene similar to that used in the west by naval aircraft operating on aircraft carriers. Virtually all jet fuel produced in China is now RP-3 (renamed No.3 Jet Fuel). International Specifications - AFQRJOS Check List As jet fuel supply arrangements have become more complex in the 1970s, involving co- mingling of product in joint storage facilities, a number of fuel suppliers developed a document which became known as the Aviation Fuel Quality Requirements for Jointly 50 Operated Systems, or AFQRJOS, Joint Fuelling System Check List. The “Check List” embodies the most stringent requirements of the DEF STAN 91-091 and ASTM D1655 specifications for JET A-1. By definition, any product meeting Check List requirements will also meet either DEF STAN or ASTM specifications. The Check List is recognised by seven of the major aviation fuel suppliers - BP, Chevron, ENI, ExxonMobil, Kuwait Petroleum, Shell, and Total for use in joint venture locations. Military Jet Fuel grades JP-4 JP-4 used to be the primary jet fuel for the US Air Force but was phased out in the 1990s because of safety problems. A few air forces around the world still use it but there is very little production. JP-4 is the military equivalent of Jet B with the addition of corrosion inhibitor and anti-icing additives; it meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL-5624W Grade JP-4. The UK Military specification for this grade is DEF STAN 91-088 AVTAG/FSII (formerly DERD 2454), where FSII stands for Fuel System Icing Inhibitor. NATO Code F-40. JP-5 JP-5 is a high flash point kerosene meeting the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL-5624W Grade JP-5. The UK Military specification for this grade is DEF STAN 91-086 AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452). This is primarily jet fuel for use in aircraft carriers. NATO Code F-44. JP-8 JP-8 is the military equivalent of Jet A-1 with the addition of corrosion inhibitor and anti- icing additives; it meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL- 51 83133K. It is the dominant military jet fuel grade for NATO air forces. The UK also has a specification for this grade namely DEF STAN 91-087 AVTUR/FSII (formerly DERD 2453). NATO Code F-34. JP-8 +100 JP-8 +100 is JP-8 fuel to which has been added an approved thermal stability improver additive. It meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL-83133K and has been widely used by the USAF in their fighter and trainer wings. NATO Code F-37. Aviation Gasoline (Avgas) Aviation Gasoline (Avgas) is used in small piston engine powered aircraft within the General Aviation community, e.g. private pilots, flight training, flying clubs and crop spraying. Aviation spark ignition piston engines operate using the same basic principles as spark ignition engines in cars, but they have a much higher performance requirement. In today’s General Aviation community there are only two main leaded Avgas grades (100 and 100LL low lead) - a rationalisation that has enabled fuel companies to continue supplying a market that would otherwise have become uneconomic. Worldwide, total Avgas volumes are low, since Avgas-fuelled aircraft, although they outnumber jet-fuelled aircraft, are generally much smaller. Avgas grades Avgas 100 This was the standard high-octane fuel for aviation piston engines and has a high lead content. There are two major specifications for Avgas 100. The ASTM D910 and UK DEF STAN 91-090. These two specifications are broadly the same, but differ over antioxidant content, oxidation stability requirements and max lead content. Avgas 100 has a low market demand and is now only produced in a one or two locations in the world. Avgas 100 is dyed green. 52 Avgas 100LL This grade is the lower lead version of Avgas 100. Low lead is a relative term. There is still up to 0.56 g/litre of lead in Avgas 100LL. This grade is listed in the same specifications as Avgas 100, namely ASTM D910 and UK DEF STAN 91-090. Avgas 100LL is dyed blue and is the main grade of Avgas used worldwide. Avgas 100VLL This grade is the very low lead version of Avgas 100LL, containing a maximum lead concentration of 0.45 g/litre. It is effectively a variant of Avgas 100LL with a restraint on the max lead content. It could be made available as an interim measure prior to the introduction of an unleaded high octane fuel, should it be necessary to address environmental concerns about leaded fuels. This grade is listed in ASTM D 910 and, other than the lower lead content, is constrained by the same specification requirements as Avgas 100LL. It therefore meets the same aircraft approvals and operating limitation requirements as Avgas 100LL meeting ASTM D910. Avgas 100VLL is dyed blue. Avgas UL82 and UL87 These grades were intended to comply with the same aircraft approvals as the original motor gasoline (mogas) Supplementary Type Certificate (STC) approvals, but with better compositional and performance control. They were aimed at the low compression ratio engines, typically used within the light sport category, which do not need the high octane of Avgas 100LL and could be designed to run on automotive style unleaded fuels. Avgas UL82 and Avgas UL87 are specified in ASTM D6227. Unlike other Avgas specifications, ASTM D6227 allows the use of some non-hydrocarbon components used in mogas, such as ethers, but, unlike mogas specifications, alcohols are not permitted. There has been no meaningful market demand for either Avgas UL82 or Avgas UL87 and so they are not known to be available in the market even though these remain active grade within an active specification and at the time of writing they remain as theoretical fuels only. Avgas UL82 and Avgas UL87 are both undyed grades. 53 Avgas UL91 and Avgas UL94 Compositionally Avgas UL91 somewhat comparable with Avgas 100LL but with a zero lead content, which results in a lower octane rating of 91MON. Avgas UL94 improves on this by including some more exotic high octane hydrocarbons such as mesitylene. Avgas UL91 and Avgas UL94 are specified in ASTM D7547. Avgas UL91 differs principally from both Avgas UL87 and UL82 not only in the higher octane rating, but in lower vapour pressure (49kPa max compared with 60kPa max in ASTM D6227) and that oxygenates such as ethers are not permitted. In common with all other current Avgas specifications, ASTM D7547 does not permit the use of alcohols such as ethanol. Avgas UL91 and Avgas UL94 are both undyed grades. History of Avgas Grades Avgas is gasoline fuel for spark ignition reciprocating piston engined aircraft. As with all gasolines, avgas is very volatile and is extremely flammable at normal operating temperatures. Procedures and equipment for safe handling of this product must therefore be of the highest order. Avgas grades are defined primarily by their octane rating and lead content. Two octane ratings have historically been applied to aviation gasolines (the lean mixture rating and the rich mixture rating) which results in a multiple numbering system e.g. Avgas 100/130 (in this case the lean mixture performance rating is 100 and the rich mixture rating is 130). The aviation lean mixture rating is now obsolete due to a lack of test engines and has been replaced by the Motor Octane Number (MON) method, with a lean mixture rating of 100 equating to a MON of 99.6. In the past, there were many different grades of aviation gasoline in general use e.g. 80/87, 91/96, 100/130, 108/135 and 115/145. However, with decreasing demand these were rationalised down to one principle grade, Avgas 100/130. (To avoid confusion and to minimise errors in handling aviation gasoline, it is now common practice to designate the grade by just the lean mixture performance rating; thus Avgas 100/130 becomes Avgas 100). 54 Some years ago, an additional grade was introduced to allow a common fuel to be used in engines originally designed for grades with lower lead contents as well as in those engines certified for higher lead contents. This grade is called Avgas 100LL, the LL standing for ‘low lead’. All equipment and facilities handling avgas are colour coded and display prominently the API markings denoting the actual grade carried. Currently, the two major grades in use internationally are Avgas 100LL and Avgas 100. To ease identification the fuels are dyed: Avgas 100LL is coloured blue, while Avgas 100 is coloured green. In 1999 a new Avgas grade UL82 (UL standing for unleaded) was introduced as a low octane grade suitable for low compression engines. It has a higher vapour pressure than conventional Avgas and can be manufactured from motor gasoline components, but, notably, the specification does not allow alcohols such as ethanol to be used. It is particularly applicable to those aircraft which have Supplementary Type Certificates (STCs) to use automotive gasoline. An extension of this has been the grade Avgas UL87, which was created in response to the higher octane demand of some light sport engines; notably the turbocharged Rotax® engines. UL87 is otherwise similar to UL82, using similar components, but again expressly excluding alcohols. The relatively high vapour pressure of the ASTM D6227 specification when compared to more conventional Avgas grades makes UL82 and UL87 somewhat unsuitable for high altitude flight as engine failure from vapour lock can be an issue. In order to meet the demands from the military for an unleaded Avgas for use in high flying, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), a new low vapour pressure UL91 grade was introduced, resulting in the requirement for a new specification, ASTM D7547. More recently this specification has been extended to include a higher octane Avgas UL94, with a minimum MON value of 94. This is estimated to be as high an octane as is practicable with the use of a hydrocarbon only composition without adversely affecting other properties required of such a fuel. The ASTM D7457 specification is approved for light sport engines, such as Rotax®, and has also been approved in a wider range of general aviation engines of low to mid- octane demand. 55 However, it is clear that this will not be of high enough octane rating to be used safely in all general aviation engines and work continues in trying to find a true unleaded alternative to the almost ubiquitous Avgas 100LL. To meet this higher octane demand challenge without the use of Lead, research and testing work is underway by Shell and others using a number of relatively exotic high octane, non-hydrocarbon components and, through the oversight of the Federal Aviation Administration, it is hoped that these efforts will be successful in attracting fleet-wide approval at some point in the future. 56 NOTES 57 ACCESS TO AVIATION FUEL SPECIFICATIONS Because it is important to refer only to the most recent issues of fuel specifications, their detailed requirements have not been tabulated in this AeroShell Book since they could quickly become out-of-date. Copies of the specifications cited above can be obtained from the following authorities: DEF STAN Specifications UK Defence Standardization Kentigern House, Room 1138 65 Brown Street GLASGOW G2 8EX phone +44 141 224 2531 email: enquiries@dstan.mod.gov.uk NOTE: DEF STAN specifications are freely available from their web site at: www.dstan.mod.uk ASTM Specifications ASTM specifications are published annually in the ASTM Book of Standards, Section 5 (on paper and CD). Copies are available from: ASTM 100 Barr Harbor Drive West Conshohocken PA 19428-2959 USA phone +1 610 832 9585 email: service@astm.org ASTM website is: www.astm.org NOTE: Specifications are available for a charge. 58 US Military Specifications Department of Defense DODSSP Building 4/ Section D 700 Robins Avenue PA 19111-5094 USA phone +1 215 697 2667 fax +1 215 697 1462 NOTE: US Military specifications are freely available from their web site at: https://quicksearch.dla.mil/qsSearch.aspx IATA Guidance Material for Aviation Turbine Fuels Specifications IATA issue an excellent guide covering commercial aviation fuels and additives. The latest edition can be obtained from: Fuel Services IATA 800 Place Victoria PO Box 113 Montreal Quebec Canada H6Z 1M1 phone +1 514 874 0202 fax +1 514 874 9632 IATA website is: https://store.iata.org/ where the document can be found under Publications > Safety & Operations > Turbine Fuel Specification Publication AFQRJOS Check List for Jet A-1 The Joint Fuelling Systems Check List for Jet A-1 is maintained by the JIG Product Quality Committee on behalf of the industry. The latest edition can be accessed on the Joint Inspection Group’s website: www.jigonline.com under the link ‘Publications’. 59 AVIATION FUEL ADDITIVES Aviation fuel additives are compounds added to the fuel in very small quantities, usually measurable only in parts per million, to provide special or improved qualities. The quantity to be added and approval for its use in various grades of fuel is strictly controlled by the appropriate specifications. A few additives in common use are as follows:- 1. Anti-knock additives reduce the tendency of gasoline to detonate. Tetra-ethyl lead (TEL) is the only approved anti-knock additive for aviation use and has been used in motor and aviation gasolines since the early 1930s. 2. Anti-oxidants prevent the formation of gum deposits on fuel system components caused by oxidation of the fuel in storage and also inhibit the formation of peroxide compounds in certain jet fuels. 3. Static dissipator additives reduce the hazardous effects of static electricity generated by movement of fuel through modern high flow-rate fuel transfer systems. Static dissipator additives do not reduce the need for ‘bonding’ to ensure electrical continuity between metal components (e.g. aircraft and fuelling equipment) nor do they influence hazards from lightning strikes. 4. Corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, such as pipelines and fuel storage tanks, from corrosion. Some corrosion inhibitors also improve the lubricating properties (lubricity) of certain jet fuels. 5. Fuel System Icing Inhibitors (Anti-icing additives) reduce the freezing point of water precipitated from jet fuels due to cooling at high altitudes and prevent the formation of ice crystals which restrict the flow of fuel to the engine. This type of additive does not affect the freezing point of the fuel itself. Anti-icing additives can also provide some protection against microbiological growth in jet fuel. 6. Metal de-activators suppress the catalytic effect which some metals, particularly copper, have on fuel oxidation. 60 7. Biocide additives are sometimes used to combat microbiological growths in jet fuel, often by direct addition to aircraft tanks; as indicated above, some anti-icing additives appear to possess biocidal properties. 8. Thermal Stability Improver additives are sometimes used in military JP-8 fuel, to produce a grade referred to as JP-8+100, to inhibit deposit formation in the high temperature areas of the aircraft fuel system. 61 FUEL PROPERTIES NOT IN SPECIFICATIONS Fuel specifications do not list all the properties of aviation fuels; it would be impractical for them to do so because by no means all of these properties could be tested for at the creation of each new fuel batch. However, many of these properties not listed in official fuel specifications may nevertheless be important to the designers of aircraft engines and airframes because they describe certain aspects of the fuel’s behaviour when in aircraft tanks and fuel systems. Examples of these properties are: Surface tension Flammability limits Specific heat Autoignition temperature Thermal conductivity Spark ignition energy Enthalpy Bulk Modulus Heat of vapourisation Solubility of gases in fuel Lubricity Solubility of water in fuel Permittivity Information and typical values for these properties can be obtained from a variety of publications. The most useful one for designers of aircraft and engine fuel systems is probably the Coordinating Research Council (CRC) Report entitled “Handbook of Aviation Fuel Properties” (CRC Doc. No. 635). This was published in 2004 and is available from the Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., General Publications Department, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, Pennsylvania PA 15096 U.S.A. Order via http://aerospace.sae.org/ or by calling +1 724 776 4970. Available in hard copy and CD ROM format. 62 SHELL AEROJET Shell AeroJet is a premium aviation fuel service, offering major benefits to pilots, operators and owners of turbine powered aircraft. The service is available at selected airports and countries worldwide. Shell AeroJet minimises or eliminates some of the problems associated with the use of Jet A-1 in business jets, turbo-prop aircraft and helicopters and is mandated by some airframe manufacturers such as Pilatus. Anti-Icing The air inside fuel tanks contains moisture which can precipitate into the fuel as free water. This water has the potential to turn to ice during flight operation or even on the ground. Shell AeroJet contains a Fuel System Icing Inhibitor (FSII) that is an approved additive which dramatically lowers the freezing point of water and eliminates this problem to give added security in case of fuel heater system breakdown. It also creates an environment that inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi which can pose a serious danger to the plane and passengers. This feature in Shell AeroJet can be particularly valuable for aircraft operating in hot and humid conditions. Assurance The practice of using aerosol cans to mix anti-icing additive while overwing refuelling often results in an uneven mix and incorrect additive concentration as well as posing health hazards to the user from possible contact with the neat additive. The major advantages of Shell AeroJet over this and other systems is the assurance that the fuel has been dosed with the additive at exactly the correct rate every time without any exposure to liquid splashes or harmful vapours. 63 AEROSHELL PERFORMANCE ADDITIVE 101 AeroShell Performance Additive 101, developed for the USAF JP-8 +100 programme by BetzDearborn (now GE Water & Power) for high temperature, high performance jet fuel, helps prevent the build up of carbon deposits in the engine. AeroShell Performance Additive 101 is a unique, patented jet fuel additive designed to improve the thermal stability of military jet fuels. AeroShell Performance Additive 101 is approved for use in all military and civil engines manufactured by Pratt & Whitney and General Electric. Approval in Rolls-Royce and other manufacturers’ engines is pending. AeroShell Performance Additive 101 is designed to:  provide greater fuel heat-dispersing capacity by allowing fuel temperatures to increase by as much as 56°C (100°F) without degradation.  reduce deposits in turbine engines using all grades of jet fuel.  prevent and clean up carbon in fuel system and combustion sections of turbine engines. Improves Jet Fuel Thermal Stability In today’s military aircraft, standard jet fuel can break down and form deposits on metal surfaces, when thermally stressed to temperatures above 150°C (300°F). This severe environment requires substantially improved fuel stability. In a variety of static and dynamic laboratory tests, along with advanced simulator rigs, Shell Aviation’s additive programme, in conjunction with GE, has already demonstrated a minimum of 56°C (100°F) improvement over today’s jet fuel in both the bulk and wetted wall areas of aircraft fuel systems. 64 Extended Duration Thermal Stability Test Bulk Fuel 350°F: Nozzle 550°F for 56 Hours Reduces Fuel Manifold & Nozzle Coking Carbon build-up (coking) can create back pressure in fuel manifolds, as well as distort fuel nozzle spray patterns. Altered flame patterns can contribute to metal fatigue in both the combustion and turbine sections of the engine. High engine cycle fatigue often occurs. In severe cases, turbine damage leading to catastrophic engine failure is possible. Coke build up along the walls of the fuel manifold system can cause changes in hydraulic pressure and contribute to erratic fuel controller performance. In real world field testing and subsequent routine usage in JP-8 +100, AeroShell Performance Ad