FAA Safety Briefing — May/June 2015

FAA Safety Briefing is the FAA safety policy voice of non-commercial general aviation.

The May/June 2015 issue of FAA Safety Briefing highlights aircraft performance. Articles focus on understanding the operating parameters of your aircraft as well as having realistic performance expectations during flight.

Cover photo courtesy of Cessna

Features

8 Arsenal of Democracy Celebrating VE Day in a Grand (and Safe!) Fashion by Paul Cianciolo 10 Urban “Air” Legends Debunking Aircraft Performance Myths by Tom Hoffmann 14 A Finesse for “Vitesse” Mastering the Maze of V-Speeds by Susan Parson 17 Your Airplane is Ready to Print How 3-D Printing Technology is Taking Shape in the Aerospace Industry by Tom Hoffmann 22 A Touch of Class (and Category) Performance and Privileges by Susan Parson 26 The Bigger Bang Theory A Quest for More Power by James Williams

Departments

1 Jumpseat – an executive policy perspective 2 ATIS – GA news and current events 5 Aeromedical Advisory – a checkup on all things aeromedical 7 Ask Medical Certification – Q&A on medical certification issues 20 Checklist – FAA resources and safety reminders 30 Nuts, Bolts, and Electrons – GA maintenance issues 32 Angle of Attack – GA safety strategies 33 Vertically Speaking – safety issues for rotorcraft pilots 35 Flight Forum – letters from the Safety Briefing mailbag 36 Postflight – an editor’s perspective Inside back cover FAA Faces – FAA employee profile

JOHN DUNC A N

DIREC TOR, F L IGH T S TA NDA RDS SE R V ICE Jumpseat

Performance Values

A big part of my job at the FAA, nowadays, is questions in the right way. It means making judg - to lead the kind of cultural change that will make ments based on each specific pattern of facts and Flight Standards an efficient, agile, healthy, and on input from interdependent communications. It high-performing organization. So when I meet with means managing risk.

employees, I talk about three attributes I want to see In the GA flying context, critical thinking requires embedded in our organizational culture: interdepen - acquiring as much knowledge and skill as you possibly dence, critical thinking, and consistency. can about flying, both in general and in terms of your As I was thinking about this performance- specific airplane and the type of flying you do. As the focused issue of FAA Safety Briefing , I realized that saying goes, a good pilot is always learning — and in practicing these three behaviors can also help ensure aviation, there is always something more to learn.

high performance in your aviation activities. While you are actually flying, critical thinking demands at least two things. First, it requires paying Interdependence attention. Too many pilots have been lulled into the Charles Lindbergh was nicknamed the Lone proverbial “fat, dumb, and happy” complacency Eagle. For too many years, aviation unfortunately that leaves them unprepared when something goes absorbed, even celebrated, that “go-it-alone” mental - wrong. You need to be completely and constantly ity. It took the better part of two decades, and far too in the loop with what you and your airplane are many preventable accidents, for the FAA and indus - doing — where you are going, and how it’s all going.

try to begin to embed the crew resource manage - Paying attention gives you the ability to quickly spot ment (CRM) approach into the commercial aviation something that’s not quite right, such as an abnormal culture. We’ve been working for over ten years now to reading on a gauge.

build a similar idea — Single Pilot Resource Manage - Second, critical thinking requires asking a constant ment (SRM) — into GA culture.

stream of questions. The classic one is “where would I Both CRM and SRM are great examples of inter - go if the engine quit right now?” If you don’t know how dependence, which means communicating broadly to start framing your critical thinking questions, try and recognizing that everyone has something to using the aviate-navigate-communicate mantra. For contribute. We tend to teach the CRM/SRM concepts example, use “aviate” to structure the “how-goes-it” in connection with actual flight operations, but inter - questions about airspeed, altitude, and attitude. For dependence is much broader than that. In the GA “navigate,” don’t let the moving map lull you into inat - context, it should also mean “hangar flying” — talking tention — constantly ask yourself where you are, and to your fellow pilots to get ideas, share best practices, where you’re going (e.g., what’s the next waypoint).

and give/receive advice. Great hangar flying includes The “communicate” piece reminds us to ask questions holding yourself and your fellow hangar flyers about things like required radio calls or reports.

accountable for improving skills, managing risk, and Consistency operating safely. You can also practice interdepen - dence by attending FAASTeam safety seminars and When it comes to aviating, consistency is the participating in type clubs (a great resource). And, key to the kind of high performance we should all be when it comes to any issue related to your aircraft, demanding of ourselves, and of our machines. Flying using interdependence to make and maintain con - a stabilized approach is one example of consistency.

nections with a good aviation maintenance techni - Another is ensuring that you are constantly on the cian (AMT) is worth gold. target airspeed, altitude, and attitude. Still another is striving for smooth handling of the controls, proper Critical Thinking power settings, and appropriate use of on-board For the past few years, there has also been an technology. And on the communication side, consis - increased emphasis on what some call “higher order tent use of approved terminology is certainly a mark thinking skills.” I call it critical thinking. To me, that of a high-performing pilot.

means using interdependence to help develop the Now that you have some tips on stepping up necessary understanding of facts, desired outcomes, your pilot performance game, on to the plane perfor - and possible solutions. It means asking the right mance articles in this issue!

May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 1

AV I AT ION NE WS ROUNDUP ATIS

required for the practical test. The change states that Alaska Weather Camera Program Fully Op - a complex aircraft is not required when adding an erational airplane class rating to an existing flight instructor cer - tificate that already contains an airplane category and class rating. The FAA finds the requirements for the use of a complex airplane are not necessary when the applicant has already satisfactorily demonstrated the takeoff, landing, emergency, and other tasks contained within this PTS in a complex airplane. For example, an applicant seeking to add a single-engine rating to an existing flight instructor certificate that already contains an airplane multiengine category and class rating does not need to perform the practical test in a complex airplane.

You can access this update for flight instructors as well as the PTS for other airmen tests at www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/test_standards .

Changes Coming to the Flight Service Program Pilots now have access to a fully deployed Alaska Weather Camera Program to help determine when Recognizing a shift in users’ preferences for auto - and where it’s safe to fly. The program, which the FAA mated services, the FAA is changing its Flight Service completed ahead of time and on budget, improves operation to make it more efficient and reduce costs.

safety and efficiency by providing pilots with near The agency will continue to maintain the highest real-time, visual weather information. It includes a level of safety and none of these changes will affect recently updated website that enhances navigational core flight service safety functions such as search and planning on an interactive map with easily accessible rescue, emergency services, weather observation, images and other weather data products. NOTAM entry and dissemination, or pilot weather The pictures have been critical in helping pilots reports. Pilots are steadily shifting to automated and in Alaska make better safety decisions. The program web-based tools to obtain services and Flight Service also helps aircraft operators save fuel by eliminating is already using this type of technology to eliminate situations where pilots take off only to find they have underutilized and redundant services and reduce to return due to bad weather.

expenses. The FAA will phase in the changes to ease The cameras are positioned to view sky condi - the transition for users.

tions around airports and air routes as well as in For more information, including a Frequently extreme mountain passes such as the Anaktuvuk Asked Question (FAQ) section, or to send com - Pass on Alaska’s northern slope. The FAA started ments, questions, and suggestions, please visit: the program after determining that pilots operating www.faa.gov/go/flightservice .

under VFR would benefit from actual views of cur - rent weather conditions. Camera images are updated Small UAS Rules Update every 10 minutes and are disseminated to the public Last February, the FAA issued a Notice of Pro - through the FAA’s aviation camera website at http:// posed Rulemaking (NPRM) to establish a framework avcams.faa.gov.

of regulations that would allow routine use of certain small unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) in today’s Change to Flight Instructor PTS aviation system, while maintaining flexibility to There was a small change to the Certificated Flight accommodate future technological innovations. The Instructor Practical Test Standards (PTS) in January proposal offers safety rules for small UAS (under 55 2015 that clarifies when a non-complex airplane is pounds) conducting non-recreational operations.

2 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 The rule would limit flights to daylight and visual- Operators would be responsible for ensuring an line-of-sight operations. It also addresses height aircraft is safe before flying, but the FAA is not pro - restrictions, operator certification, optional use of posing that small UAS comply with current agency a visual observer, aircraft registration and marking, airworthiness standards or aircraft certification.

and operational limits. For example, an operator would have to perform a The proposed rule would require an operator to preflight inspection that includes checking the com - maintain visual line of sight of a small UAS. The rule munications link between the control station and the would allow, but not require, an operator to work UAS. Small UAS with FAA-certificated components with a visual observer who would maintain constant also could be subject to agency airworthiness direc - visual contact with the aircraft. The operator would tives.

still need to be able to see the UAS with unaided The new rules would not apply to model aircraft.

vision (except for glasses). The NPRM also requested However, model aircraft operators must continue to comments on whether the rules should permit satisfy all of the criteria specified in Sec. 336 of Public operations beyond line of sight, and if so, what the Law 112-95, including the stipulation that they be appropriate limits should be. operated only for hobby or recreational purposes.

Under the proposed rule, the person actually As of press time, the comment period for the flying a small UAS would be an “operator.” An opera - NPRM was scheduled to close on April 24, 2015. For tor would have to be at least 17 years old, pass an more information about UAS, go to www.faa.gov/uas.

aeronautical knowledge test and obtain an FAA UAS operator certificate. To maintain certification, the New GA Survey Now Underway operator would have to pass the FAA knowledge tests The 37th annual General Aviation and Part 135 every 24 months. A small UAS operator would not Activity Survey (GA Survey) for reporting on cal - need any further private pilot certifications (i.e., a endar year 2014 is now underway. As always, your private pilot certificate or medical rating).

participation is important. If you receive an invite to The proposed rule maintains the existing pro - participate, please respond, even if you did not fly hibition against operating in a careless or reckless your aircraft in 2014.

manner. It also would bar an operator from allowing The GA Survey is the FAA’s primary source of any object to be dropped from the UAS.

information about the size and activity of the gen -

Safety Enhancement Topics

May: Aircraft Performance – Knowing and June: Transition Training – Understanding the understanding the limitations and need for transition training when moving on operating parameters of your aircraft. to a new or different type of aircraft.

Please visit www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing for more information on these and other topics.

eral aviation and on-demand Part 135 fleet. It helps U.S. Department provide useful data for all types of aircraft including of Transportation rotorcraft, fixed-wing piston, turboprops, turbojets, Federal Aviation gliders, hot air balloons, amateur-built, light-sport Administration aircraft, experimental and non-experimental aircraft.

The survey also covers many different aircraft opera - ISSN: 1057-9648 FAA Safety Briefing tions, including general operating and flight rules May/June 2015 (part 91), on-demand part 135 (air taxi, air tours, and Volume 54/Number 3 non-scheduled commuter), and agricultural aircraft Anthony R. Foxx Secretary of Transportation operations (Part 137). (To see more on how this Michael P. Huerta Administrator Margaret Gilligan Associate Administrator for Aviation Safety information is used, check out the latest FAA Aero - John Duncan Director, Flight Standards Service space Forecast at http://go.usa.gov/3CRAJ .)

James Viola Manager, General Aviation and Commercial Division Please be assured that your responses are confi - Susan Parson Editor Tom Hoffmann Managing Editor dential. The information will be used only for statisti - James Williams Associate Editor / Photo Editor cal purposes and will not be released in any form Sabrina Woods Associate Editor that would reveal an individual participant. Tetra Paul Cianciolo Assistant Editor John Mitrione Art Director Tech is an independent research firm that conducts Published six times a year, FAA Safety Briefing, formerly FAA Aviation News, the GA Survey on behalf of the FAA. You can contact promotes aviation safety by discussing current technical, regulatory, and proce - Tetra Tech with questions toll-free at 1-800-826-1797 dural aspects affecting the safe operation and maintenance of aircraft. Although based on current FAA policy and rule interpretations, all material is advisory or or via email infoaviationsurvey@tetratech.com .

informational in nature and should not be construed to have regulatory effect.

Certain details of accidents described herein may have been altered to protect the privacy of those involved.

New Flight Service Website Updates and The FAA does not officially endorse any goods, services, materials, or products of manufacturers that may be referred to in an article. All brands, product names, Capabilities company names, trademarks, and service marks are the properties of their respec - tive owners. All rights reserved.

Lockheed Martin Flight Service The Office of Management and Budget has approved the use of public funds for (www.1800wxbrief.com) has deployed another batch printing FAA Safety Briefing .

of great new capabilities and website updates. Below are the latest changes and newest features: CONTACT INFORMATION The magazine is available on the Internet at: • The Departure Planning Tool has been http://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing enhanced to include indication of Adverse Comments or questions should be directed to the staff by: Conditions • Emailing: SafetyBriefing@faa.gov • Coded Departure Routes are now available in • Writing: Editor, FAA Safety Briefing , Federal Aviation Administration, AFS- the Plan a Route option 805, 800 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20591 • NavLogs can be configured to use Hourly Burn • Calling: (202) 267-1100 Rates • Twitter: @FAASafetyBrief • Auto generation of return Flight Plans • Notifications of actual ATC routing for your SUBSCRIPTION INFORMATION The Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, sells FAA IFR flights Safety Briefing on subscription and mails up to four renewal notices.

• Adverse Condition Alerting System (ACAS) For New Orders: Subscribe via the Internet at http://bookstore.gpo.gov, telephone (202) 512-1800 or toll-free 1-866-512-1800, or use the self-mailer form in the center alerts for IFR flights are now sent up until your of this magazine and send to Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9371. departure time Subscription Problems/Change of Address: Send your mailing label with your • Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) operating comments/request to Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Contact Center, Washington, DC 20408-9375. You can also call (202) 512- areas (UOAs) 1800 or 1-866-512-1800 and ask for Customer Service, or fax your information to (202) 512-2104.

Flight Services has also unveiled a new video series on the online flight planning capabilities via the Pilot Portal. Training videos can also be accessed on YouTube at http://bit.ly/1Ea37LN.

4 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015

JA ME S F R A SE R , M .D

F EDE R A L A IR SURGEON Aeromedical Advisory

New AME Guidance on Sleep Apnea

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a common hypertension that requires more than two medica - disorder affecting at least 4 to 8 percent of the adult tions for control, Type 2 diabetes, atrial fibrillation, population and is increasingly recognized by the congestive heart failure, or stroke. Other symptoms public. OSA is a disqualifying medical condition for your AME should ask about that would suggest an an airman medical certificate under 14 CFR part 67 increased risk of OSA include: snoring, daytime (Medical Standards and Certification) and poses a sleepiness, complaints of awakening with the sensa - hazard to the safety of the National Airspace System tion of gasping or choking, witnessed apneas (ces - (NAS) and to the health of airmen. The reason: OSA sation of breathing), morning headaches, decreased is a major cause of fatigue. The disorder also inhibits concentration, memory loss or irritability. Physical/ restorative sleep and can cause excessive daytime clinical findings that would suggest to your AME an sleepiness, personality disturbances, cardiac dys - increased risk of OSA include: Obesity (high BMI), rhythmias, myocardial infarction, stroke, sudden car - increased neck circumference, enlarged tonsils and diac death, and cognitive impairments (decreased nasal abnormalities such as polyps or deviation of memory, attention, planning, problem-solving, and the nasal septum.

multi-tasking). As you can see, OSA is tied deeply to I believe this new OSA screening guidance will human performance. significantly improve upon the safety of the NAS. A Citing the significant medical and safety impli - significant secondary benefit will be improved pilot cations of OSA, the fact that OSA is underdiagnosed health and career longevity. Also, the changes in the in the U.S. pilot population, and recommendations certification process substantially expand physician from the National Transportation Safety Board screening options to reduce the frequency and costs (NTSB), last year the Office of Aerospace Medicine of unnecessary evaluations and testing. Finally, (OAM) proposed new guidance to AMEs on screen - one of the most significant benefits is the result of ing for OSA. At that time, we proposed that AMEs the issuance of a regular medical certificate for the would refer individuals with a BMI of 40 or higher to airmen determined by the AME to be at significant a sleep medicine specialist to determine the need for risk for OSA and referred for further evaluation.

treatment. Following treatment, if indicated, these This saves months of flying compared to the current individuals would receive special issuance medi - policy that requires deferral.

cal certification. While the proposal was designed Overall, aviation safety and pilot health will be to identify only the highest risk individuals, the enhanced while reducing the financial burdens and announcement created significant concerns in the disincentives for obtaining OSA evaluation and treat - pilot community. ment. With this new policy, AME and pilot aware - Responding to these concerns, OAM placed ness of the dangers of OSA will improve and the on hold the issuance of new medical guidance to benefits of treatment will continue to grow.

AMEs with respect to screening for OSA. We have subsequently worked with the pilot community, James Fraser received a B.A., M.D., and M.P.H. from the University of AMEs, pilot advocacy organizations, and the avia - Oklahoma. He completed a thirty year Navy career and retired as a Captain tion industry stakeholders to incorporate their ideas (O6) in January 2004. He is certified in the specialties of Preventive Medicine for a more inclusive approach for pilots that would (Aerospace Medicine) and Family Practice. He is a Fellow of the Aerospace also address the safety concerns of the FAA and the Medical Association and the American Academy of Family Practice.

NTSB.

The new screening guidance gives AMEs more Learn More flexibility in addressing pilots at risk for OSA. There will be no deferral of a pilot’s medical certificate OSA Screening Guidance Video for AMEs based on BMI alone. The risk of OSA will be deter - www.faa.gov/tv/?mediaid=1029 mined by an integrated assessment of history, FAA Fact Sheet on Sleep Apnea symptoms, and physical/clinical findings. Some of www.faa.gov/news/fact_sheets/news_story.cfm?newsid=18156 the factors your AME will be on the lookout for that signal an increased risk of OSA include: history of May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 5

C OUR T NE Y S C O T T, D.O.

M A N AGER, A E ROSPACE MEDIC A L

Ask Medical Certification CER T IF IC AT ION DI V ISION

process to begin. We already have a number of pilots

Q1. I am a sport pilot who would like to become

on this special issuance program, and they are doing a private pilot. I have “white coat hypertension,” very well.

as well as a racing pulse in a Dr.’s office. I also have occasional paroxysmal tachycardia which, aside from feeling an odd and rapid heartbeat sensa -

Q3. I have a special issuance first class medi -

tion, is asymptomatic. EKGs are normal; no asso - cal certificate due to what has been diagnosed ciated atrial fibrillation. My primary care doctor, a as asymptomatic leukopenia (NOT leukemia!).

cardiologist, looks at home readings for pulse and My primary physician, my AME, and the folks at blood pressure and is not concerned about any of AMAS all think that my “condition” is absolutely these issues. What should I expect before I can get normal for me and is nothing to worry about. I a third class medical?

wonder if it is possible to obtain a normal first class medical certificate without the special issu -

A1. The Aerospace Medicine Certification Division

ance, and what steps exactly I must follow to make would need to review your medical records and test - this happen.

ing that has been done to evaluate your hypertension and paroxysmal tachycardia. We would need to rule A3. Although we would need to see the specifics, out any underlying structural or ischemic cardiac there is a very good chance we would concur with conditions that could be associated with these, your primary care physician and AME. Have your especially the tachycardia. If these are satisfactory, AME request that the Aerospace Medicine Certifica - special issuance will be granted.

tion Division evaluate your condition as a normal variant.

Q2. I was diagnosed with OCD with a single epi -

sode of anxiety/depression. I have been flying for

Q4. I have e-mailed you

Send your questions to the airlines now for 10 years and I am concerned before at the middle of my SafetyBriefing@faa.gov. We’ll I won’t be able to fly again. I have been taking Chemo treatment. I have been forward them to the Aerospace Lexapro® for six months and I have recently put off treatment for a year and did Medical Certification Division in a request for a special issuance with the FAA.

in November receive a Special without your name and publish I was wondering what my options may look like Issuance on my second class concerning a medical. the answer in an upcoming issue.

medical. Rituxan is approved by the FAA, but Cladribine is

A2. The medication, escitalopram (Lexapro®), is

not. It was stated that I could now acceptable for special issuance if certain condi - request the FAA evaluate Cladribine for allow - tions are met. The Federal Air Surgeon’s staff would ance. How do I go about that? Is that something need to review all of your treatment records. You you can do? I had Non-Hodgkin’s Group B slow would also need to provide some neurocognitive growing Follicular Lymphoma.

testing and documentation from an Independent Medical Sponsor. The good news is that you have

A4. I will ask for the appropriate group to evaluate

already been on the medication long enough for this the safety profile for Cladribine in aeromedical use.

May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 7

Image courtesy of Arsenal of Democracy Flyover

Arsenal of

Democracy

Celebrating VE Day in a Grand (and Safe!) Fashion

PAU L C I A N C I O L O n May 8, 2015, perhaps one of the largest, most Vintage military aircraft are being provided by diverse formations of World War II aircraft ever multiple organizations and individuals whose mis - O assembled is scheduled to take part in a nar - sion is to preserve these historic artifacts in flying rated flyover of the National WWII Memorial and condition. Among the aircraft expected is the only National Mall in Washington, D.C., as part of the airworthy B-29 Superfortress , which is the same air - 70th anniversary of Victory in Europe (VE) Day. The craft type that dropped the atomic bombs on Japan historically sequenced warbird formations represent to end the war. Other aircraft include the P-40 War - the war’s major battles from Pearl Harbor to D-Day hawk , P-39 Aerocobra , P-38 Lightning , P-51 Mustang , to the final air assault on Japan. P-47 Thunderbolt , FG-1D Corsair , B-25 Mitchell , B-17 “The warbirds played a tremendous part in our Flying Fortress , and many others.

success in the war, and will forever be a symbol of Flying more than 70 airplanes with standard, our country’s patriotism and tenacity when fighting limited, or experimental certificates over national for freedom,” notes former President George H.W. landmarks inside restricted airspace posed some sig - Bush on the nonprofit Arsenal of Democracy’s web - nificant challenges to mitigate. The Commemorative site, of which he is honorary co-chair. “As a former Air Force (CAF) was granted three exemptions from Avenger pilot, I am pleased to be part of this tribute Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) section alongside my fellow veterans.” 91.319(c), which states that no person may oper - ate an experimental type certificated aircraft over a densely populated area or in a congested airway.

The “Arsenal of Democracy” in World War II was “Our goal was to make sure the flyover could be a slogan used by President Franklin D. Roos - conducted safely,” explains Jim Viola, manager of evelt, in a radio broadcast delivered December the FAA’s General Aviation and Commercial Divi - 29, 1940. Roosevelt promised to help the United sion. “We had to assess and mitigate the risks, which Kingdom fight Nazi Germany by giving them included focusing on the specific route over the military supplies while the United States stayed Potomac River to minimize exposure to people and out of the actual fighting. The announcement was property on the ground.” made a year before the attack on Pearl Harbor, The FAA’s General Aviation and Commercial at a time when Germany had occupied much of Division, part of the Flight Standards Service, Europe and threatened Britain. “The great arse - worked with both the Washington and Baltimore nal of democracy” came to specifically reference Flight Standard District Offices and used a risk- America and its industrial machine, as the pri - based decision making process to allow this his - mary military supplier for the Allied war effort.

8 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 Photo by Raymond Stinchcomb photo by Luigino Caliaro photo by Scott Slocum The FG-1D was a version of the popular A P-51 in formation with a B-25 and B-17 The P-51 and B-29 both played major Marine Corps/Navy F4U Corsair produced roles in the later phases of the war.

by the Goodyear Company toric undertaking. populated areas. While on the display route over Additionally, the FAA’s Air Traffic Organization the National Mall area, aircraft can maneuver to a worked with all of the parties involved to be able to non-congested area within 30 seconds if required minimize overflight of people and property on the for an emergency landing. The route also minimizes surface, offer a structure for ingress and egress to the conflict with the air carrier traffic inside Dulles display area, coordinate the hold on departures out Class B airspace.

of National Airport (DCA), and provide risk-mitigat - The minimum safe altitudes for each aircraft ing strategies for all participating aircraft. were also evaluated. For example, a P-40 Warhawk “It is a huge task to coordinate a flyover of this has a 4.5 to 1 glide ratio but a P-51 Mustang has 12 to magnitude in the Washington, D.C., airspace. We are 1 glide ration, so aircraft specific minimum altitudes very appreciative of the close coordination and sup - were determined to be able to avoid people and port we have received to date from federal entities property in an emergency.

such as the FAA, TSA, Secret Service, U.S. National Formation training and currency of pilots was also Park Service, and Capitol Police, just to name a few,” required. Crew training and standardization was based said Pete Bunce, president and CEO of the General on CAFs Living History Flight Experience exemption.

Aviation Manufacturers Association. “We are glad to be part of this historic event The participants and the FAA decided on the and fulfil our responsibility ensuring public safety,” specific VFR flight path down the Potomac River, said Viola.

which was already in everyday use and familiar to For more information about the flyover and ATC specialists for arrivals and departures from Arsenal of Democracy, go to www.ww2flyover.org.

Reagan National Airport (DCA) and avoids densely For more information on petitioning for exemptions, go to http://1.usa.gov/1BKhsuY.

Paul Cianciolo is an assistant editor and the social media lead for FAA Safety Briefing . He is a U.S. Air Force veteran, and a rated aircrew member and search and rescue team leader with the Civil Air Patrol.

May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 9 Photo by Raymond G. Stinchcomb

T O M H O F F M A N N

Urban “Air” Legends

Debunking Aircraft Performance Myths

Photo by James Williams The tree that had Schwartz’s number that day "As long as I stay in the yellow arc, my airplane was a modest ten feet high. As pilots sometimes do, can handle a little rough air.” Schwartz admits he was focused more on takeoff “It’s only a tiny bit of frost on the wings. We can distance than on what obstacles were lurking at the still take off.” end of runway. With the relatively flat climb angles “If you inadvertently spin, just let go of the of most small airplanes, that’s an important element controls.” not to overlook. “Even though ‘the book’ said it would be tight, I thought that I could make it because “We’re below V , I’m safe to make whatever A the trees weren’t that tall,” said Schwartz.

control inputs I need.” So how exactly are we supposed to measure obstacles at the end of a runway? There are a few ny of these sound familiar? Most general avia - good resources that can help including the Airport/ tion pilots will admit to hearing at least one (or Facility Directory, instrument approach plates, or

A more) of these common aircraft performance

even asking airport personnel or fellow flyers. In myths during their flying careers. These myths can most cases it’s probably easier (and safer!) to err on originate for any number of reasons: a lack of knowl - the side of caution and be conservative with your edge, training miscues, uncorrected bad habits, estimates. Here’s a simple method Schwartz suggests laziness, and yes, the infamous pilot bravado. While using to get a ballpark idea on the height of a tree: helping you dial down your machismo is a bit out of scope for this article, we can, however, provide some • Fold a piece of paper into a 45-degree triangle.

tips to help debunk some of the more popular urban • Sight along the diagonal edge as you walk “air” legends out there.

toward the tree.

We Should Be Able to Clear Those Trees — No • When you see the tree top along the diagonal edge of the paper, the tree height is equal to Problem your distance from it, plus your height.

In the May/June 2009 FAA Safety Briefing , aero - space engineer David Schwartz relayed a stirring After you know the height of your obstacle, it’s personal account of a “run-in” he and his plane had time to make sure you can clear it. You’ll want to with a tree at the end of a runway. Spoiler alert: The check your Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH)/ tree won. Unfortunately, they usually do. By sharing Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) for the difference his tale with fellow pilots, Schwartz was able to lever - between the ground-run distance and the takeoff age this ego-bruising moment to highlight his mis - over a 50-foot obstacle distance. Here’s the example takes and point out some key takeoff performance Schwartz used: A Piper Super Cub POH has a pub - metrics that are often underestimated or taken for lished 200-foot ground roll, with a total takeoff granted.

distance of 500 feet to get over a 50-foot obstacle. So, 10 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 it takes 300 feet from liftoff to clear the obstacle. This means that over a 100-foot obstacle, you would need about 800 feet (500 feet for the first 50 feet, plus an Photo by James Williams additional 300 for the next 50).

Keep in mind that certain runway conditions like grass, soft ground, or snow will require a cor - rection factor, generally on the order of 15 percent.

Check what’s appropriate for your specific aircraft.

Even if a runway seems dry, beware of hidden pud - dles that could hamper your acceleration. And it’s With the relatively flat climb angles of most small airplanes, it’s important not just what’s on the runway that can hurt your per - to not overlook the height of obstacles at the end of a runway.

formance. In the colder months, be sure your aircraft is free from any contaminants. Even the slightest bit of frost, ice, or snow can reduce lift by 30 percent and ful spin entries (given pro-spin inputs) as the center increase drag by 40 percent.

of gravity moved from the forward to the aft limit.

Wind is another factor sometimes misunderstood Moreover, test pilots encountered unrecoverable when calculating takeoff performance. Tailwinds on spins when the aircraft was loaded just five percent takeoff are bad of course, but knowing just how bad is beyond the manufacturer’s aft limit.

critical. If your airplane’s POH/AFM doesn’t have While we’re on the subject, a placard prohibiting tailwind correction factors, Schwartz suggests that intentional spins means an airplane has only dem - for every 10 percent of the takeoff speed, a tailwind onstrated recovery from a one-turn (or three-second) will increase the ground run by about 21 percent.

spin within one additional turn. Beyond the first Then again, it’s probably best to just not takeoff turn (or three seconds), spin recovery may be impos - with a tailwind.

sible; the pilot becomes a Less obvious is the impact of crosswinds which test pilot at that point. And Pilots are often unaware of, or do not can rob performance by introducing additional even in airplanes approved fully appreciate what goes into the drag via corrective control surface inputs and tires.

for intentional spins, if certification of light airplanes with And while headwinds generally improve takeoff you’re not following the regard to stall and spin behavior.

performance, don’t be overly confident of that extra right procedures, or if you boost. They could shift or drop off rapidly after operate outside the weight and CG envelope (both of becoming airborne.

which are not that hard to do) you may not be able to Remember, the results you get from takeoff and recover. There is also no certification requirement for landing calculations are never an absolute. It’s best spin-certified airplanes to demonstrate recovery from to always assume it’ll be longer than you calculate.

aggravated or flat spins.

A good rule of thumb is to add 50 percent to your As harmless as it may seem, it can be dangerous numbers.

to infer one airplane’s stall/spin behavior based on similarities in appearance with another airplane.

Put a Spin On It This is especially true if the airplane has been modi - Pilots are often unaware of, or do not fully appre - fied in any way, or is experimental/amateur-built.

ciate what goes into the certification of light airplanes As far as stall/spin behavior is concerned, looks can with regard to stall and spin behavior. Many might be deceiving, even deadly: avoid the temptation to think that by the time designers and lawyers get done assume that the reported stall/spin behavior of a with a particular design, the published operating similar airplane can be applied to the one you fly.

envelope is a lot smaller than it actually is.

Another spin myth worth pointing out is that But nothing could be farther from the truth! It simply letting go of the controls during an inadver - is in the best interest of airplane manufacturers to tent spin will help you to recover. In addition to this provide their customers with as much operating being a completely unnatural reaction to such an envelope as can be squeezed out of their designs; event, it can have inconsistent results. Early release consequently, there may not be as much “cushion” of the controls during a spin might work in some as pilots might think.

aircraft, but letting go too late or under some differ - NASA spin tests of a Cessna 172, for example, ent conditions may result in the inability to recover.

revealed a steadily increasing probability of success - May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 11 Even though the accident discussed above is a part 25 airplane, V is applicable to part 23, CAR 3, A and light-sport airplanes. Also, even though experi - Even the slightest bit of frost, ice, or mental airplanes may not have a published V , they A snow can reduce lift by 30 percent will still have some maximum maneuvering speed and increase drag by 40 percent.

associated with the maximum structural design loads.

The SAIB goes on to recommend that when Photo by H. Dean maneuvering at or below V , pilots should not apply A Chamberlain Furthermore, most inadvertent spins occur at pattern a full deflection of a control, followed immediately altitude. Letting go to recover then may result in more by a full deflection in the opposite direction, or apply altitude loss than you would with making a prompt full multiple control inputs simultaneously; i.e., and properly exercised recovery maneuver.

pitch, roll and yaw simultaneously, or in any com - bination thereof. The regulations do not require the Watch This!

manufacturers to make airplanes strong enough to Those are the two words you probably never withstand those types of forces.

want to hear in an airplane. They usually precede a Though it seems counterintuitive, it’s important series of “stupid pilot tricks” that can quickly bring to note that V decreases when your total aircraft A an aircraft to the brink of its breaking point. As we weight decreases. For example, V may be 100 knots A stated with spins earlier, there’s a common miscon - when an airplane is heavily loaded, but only 90 knots ception among pilots that manufacturers build in when the load is light. You have Newton’s Second plenty of cushion in terms of load limits, and that Law of Motion (F=ma) to thank for that.

what’s in the POH/AFM is probably just a conserva - A final tip on maneuvering in flight: the yellow tive estimate.

arc on your airspeed indicator is for smooth air only .

One operating limitation in particular that’s mis - While you may feel your airplane is sturdy enough understood is maneuvering speed (V ). A common A to handle a bit of rough air in the yellow, know that and unfortunate pattern that seems to have pervaded you’re going beyond what any flight test pilot has many a pilot’s thinking on VA is that they can “yank experienced on your aircraft. It may not cause your and bank” on the controls with impunity. Not so.

airplane to break apart, but it can subject it to forces A wake-up call to the pilot community on the that lead to accelerated fatigue.

error of this thinking occurred shortly after Ameri - can Airlines Flight 587 crashed into Belle Harbor, a Myths-busted!

neighborhood just outside of JFK airport in Queens.

Hopefully this article gave you some helpful The NTSB concluded that the crash, which killed 265 information to think about with regard to some of people, was due to the Airbus A300 co-pilot’s over - the popular “tall tales” of aviation. The key to many use of the rudder to counter wake turbulence.

of these myths is to understand where a particular “The American 587 accident was a landmark performance limit comes from in the first place. By case for ‘paradigm shifting without a clutch’ for better understanding the context and background almost all pilots,” says FAA Aerospace Engineer Peter with why and how certain behaviors exist, you’ll be Rouse. “We have been trained that V was the speed A well on your way to making safer decisions.

in which there were no limits on the number of times a full, abrupt control input could be accomplished.” Tom Hoffmann is the managing editor of FAA Safety Briefing . He is a com - To help clarify the meaning of V and caution A mercial pilot and holds an A&P certificate. Contributing to this article was pilots about what to avoid, the FAA published Special Rich Stowell, a Master Flight Instructor, active FAASTeam representative, Airworthiness Information Bulletin (SAIB) CE-11-17 aviation author, and veteran spin expert with over 33,000 spins performed.

in 2011. The SAIB defines V as the following: A The design maneuvering speed (V ) is the speed A Learn More below which you can move a single flight con - FAA Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin CE-11-17 trol, one time, to its full deflection, for one axis http://go.usa.gov/3rMNP of airplane rotation only (pitch, roll or yaw), in smooth air, without risk of damage to the airplane.

12 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015

Part 23 Rewrite Update

efore the Small Airplane Revitalization Act of 2013 was signed into law, the Federal Aviation Adminis - tration (FAA) typically reviewed 14 CFR part 23 about once a decade. However, with the influx of new B and novel technologies to the aviation industry (such as angle-of-attack sensors, two-axis autopilots, and other safety-enhancing systems), and in the FAA’s quest to apply risk-based decision making to our certification activities, a change was certainly due.

Enter the Part 23 Reorganization Aviation Rulemaking Committee.

The Committee was charted in August 2011 and their recommendations provided the foundation for the bill and the FAA’s part 23 rulemaking project, or what is better known as the “part 23 rewrite.” Their original objective was to review the various operations and airworthiness processes currently in place through the airplane’s service life and identify process improvements — an arduous task to say the least. In June 2013, the committee published recommendations on regulatory structures, alterations and modifica - tions, and type and product certification.

The FAA’s proposed rule will affect engineering standards for part 23 airplanes that are less than 19,000 pounds and have fewer than 19 seats. The new performance-based regulations will pave the way for tech - nological advancements and establish high-level safety requirements. This includes adopting consensus- based methods of compliance developed in cooperation with the aviation industry and other interested safety agencies.

So, What is Happening Now?

This rewrite is a significant rulemaking project and a priority for the FAA; however incorporating all of the findings in a way that is fair, can be applied and enforced, and does not have an adverse effect on aviation safety or aircraft airworthiness is labor-intensive. The new rule will touch many different aspects of aviation. For instance, the airplane performance requirements in part 23 have some overlap with the operational flight rules. The engineer responsible for the flight performance section must coordinate with the aviation safety inspectors to make sure that the part 23 changes dovetail into parts 91 and 135.

The next step in the project is to release the proposed rule to the public for comment in what is called a “notice of proposed rulemaking.” The notice will include what the rule intends to change. After the FAA addresses any relevant comments, the proposal will move to the “final rule” stage, which will dictate the new, revised, or removed requirements and their effective date. It will also identify the substantive issues raised by the public and will state how the FAA responded to those concerns.

The process to draft this new rule involves a host of dedicated individuals from multiple divisions across the FAA. Through their hard work and dedication, the part 23 rewrite will ensure the future of general avia - tion while maintaining the safety and integrity of the most efficient aerospace system in the world.

To read the Reorganization Aviation Rulemaking Committee’s full report, visit go.usa.gov/33Eeh .

May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 13

A Finesse for

“Vitesse”

Photo by James Williams

Mastering the Maze of V-speeds

S U S A N PA R S O N Maverick: I feel the need... means “speed in a particular direction.” Technically, Maverick/Goose: ...the need for speed! V stands for “vitesse,” another aviation term bor - — Top Gun (1986) rowed from the French; “vitesse” being the French word for “speed” or “rate.” Now for the definition: V-speeds are the air - here would our jargon be without Top Gun ?

Although it’s not a great idea to emulate speeds defined for specific maneuvers in specific aircraft at specific configurations (e.g., flaps, gear).

W every Maverick move (e.g., buzzing the tower

The actual speeds represented by the V-designator never ends well), the need for speed is both a thrill are true airspeeds (TAS) expressed as indicated and a necessity when it comes to aviation. That’s why clever airspeed-related sayings abound. My favorites airspeeds (IAS), which allows the pilot to read them directly from the airspeed indicator. To assist the include “airspeed is life,” “maintain thy airspeed lest pilot in this task, the airspeed indicator in most gen - the ground rise up and smite thee,” and of course eral aviation aircraft has color-coded arcs and lines Chuck Yeager’s advice to make sure you “never run out of altitude, airspeed, and ideas at the same time.” that demarcate some (but not all) of the most com - monly used and most safety-critical airspeeds.

That’s also why instructors and evaluators make How are V-speeds determined? Aircraft design - such a big deal of memorizing your V-speeds. In Title ers and manufacturers perform flight tests to help 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 1, there are 35 defined V-speeds. A quick Google search on determine aircraft performance and limitations.

They use the resulting flight test data to help deter - the term brings up an absolutely dizzying array of mine specific best speeds for safe operation of the additional V options. And then there are the subscript aircraft. Once the designers and manufacturers have V-speed definitions in 14 CFR part 23 and part 25, which are used for aircraft certification and design done their part, government flight inspectors verify the data during type-certification testing.

(though not operational use).

So where to start and what do you really need Which Ones Do I Really Have to Know?

to know? Obviously there’s no need to memorize We’ve already noted that 14 CFR part 1 includes Mach-number V-speeds if your flying (like mine) is definitions for 35 separate V-speeds (see sidebar).

confined to piston-powered planes, but it’s impor - You also know that 14 CFR section 91.103 requires tant to know — and even more important to under - you to be familiar with “all” available information stand — the major V-speeds for the make(s) and concerning a flight. Technically that means that model(s) that you do fly.

you need to know all the V-speeds in terms of both “V” is for …?

definition and value — but some are more important First, a fun fact about the term itself: do you than others. For simplicity, I have limited the list to speeds used for a single-engine airplane, and for know what “V” stands for? Most native speakers of convenience, I’ve grouped them in terms of perfor - English assume that V is for velocity, and that mostly mance speeds, and limitation speeds.

works. To be precise, though, the word velocity 14 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 Performance: Rotation speed. As stated in 14 CFR part 23, V is “the speed at which the pilot makes a control input, with the intention of R lifting the airplane out of contact with the runway or water surface.” To reduce the possibility of an inadvertent stall during

V

R takeoff, regulations state that V cannot be less than V .

R S1 V represents the airspeed for best angle of climb, and it results in the greatest amount of altitude over the shortest distance.

X You’ll want to use this speed for a short-field takeoff, especially if you need to clear obstacles in the departure path. It’s impor -

V

X tant to practice this maneuver (and flying at this airspeed) on a regular basis, because lack of experience and/or proficiency in short-field / obstacle clearance operations could lead to an inadvertent takeoff/departure stall.

V is the airspeed for best rate of climb, which produces the greatest amount of altitude gain over the shortest period of time. V is Y Y

V

Y the “standard” airspeed to establish during the post-takeoff climb and departure phase of flight.

Limitations: V is the aircraft’s design maneuvering speed. Flying at or below V , means that the airplane will stall before the structure A A is damaged by excessive loads. If you encounter a gust that causes a sudden, significant increase in load factor while flying above V , the aircraft could experience structural failure.

A Another important thing to understand is that V changes with the aircraft weight: V decreases as weight decreases, and it A A increases as aircraft weight increases.

V

A It is a mistake to assume that as long as you are at or below V , you can move the controls from stop to stop repeatedly without A damaging the aircraft. To clarify this point, 14 CFR part 25 states that “flying at or below the design maneuvering speed does not allow a pilot to make multiple large control inputs in one airplane axis or single full control inputs in more than one airplane axis at a time without endangering the airplane’s structure.” Although GA aircraft are certificated under 14 CFR part 23, this point is still valid.

Represented by the top of the white arc on the airspeed indicator, V is the maximum flap extended speed. If you allow your FE airspeed to increase above V with flaps extended, you may damage or even lose one or both flaps. Note that some aircraft FE

V

FE are designed to allow partial flap extension above V , so consult the Pilot Operating Handbook/Aircraft Flight Manual to be FE sure you understand the limitations for your specific make and model.

V represents the maximum airspeed for operating with the landing gear extended. A related speed is V , which is the maxi - LE LO

V

LE mum speed for “operating” (extending or retracting) the landing gear.

This one is easy – “never exceed” means exactly what it says. It is an absolute limit, and you should never, ever operate as if

V

NE there were a “buffer” beyond this speed. Such assumptions are likely to result in structural failure.

Maximum structural cruising speed — the highest speed that you can safely fly in smooth air — is shown as the upper limit of the green arc on the airspeed indicator. If you fly above V — in the yellow arc or “caution range” — and you encounter air

V NO

NO that is not smooth, you could cause damage to the aircraft.

V is the stalling speed, or the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable — in other words, the airplane S will stall if you fly any slower than this speed. Although the “stalling speed” part of the definition leads pilots to believe they can avoid a stall by flying at or above a specific numerical value, it is very important to understand that a stall results from

V

S exceeding the critical angle of attack. It’s better to think of V not as a numerical value, but rather the point at which your S airplane is at the critical angle of attack in straight-and-level flight. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude. V is the S point at which the air flowing over the upper surface of the wing can no longer flow smoothly to the trailing edge.

• Altitude Do V-speeds Change?

As illustrated by some of the V-speeds listed in the • Temperature (which has implications for chart above, the short answer is yes. Conditions that pressure altitude) can affect the numerical value of V-speeds include: • Runway conditions (e.g., contaminated • Aircraft weight and configuration.

runway) May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 15 V-speeds defined in 14 CFR part 1 design maneuvering speed V A design speed for maximum gust intensity V B design cruising speed V C design diving speed V D demonstrated flight diving speed V / DF MDF speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff V EF design flap speed V F maximum speed for stability characteristics V / FC MFC maximum flap extended speed V FE final takeoff speed V FTO maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power V H maximum landing gear extended speed V LE maximum landing gear operating speed V LO lift-off speed V LOF minimum control airspeed with the critical engine inoperative V MC maximum operating limit speed V / MO MMO minimum unstick speed V MU never-exceed speed V NE maximum structural cruising speed V NO rotation speed V R reference landing speed V REF Photos by James Williams stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the air - V S plane is controllable stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed in the landing V S0 configuration stalling speed or minimum steady flight speed obtained in a spe - V S1 cific configuration reference stall speed V SR As you know (and as shown in the chart), V A is one example, because the numerical value of V A reference stall speed in the landing configuration V SR0 changes with weight. Another example concerns V X reference stall speed in a specific configuration V SR1 and V : as altitude increases, V increases slightly Y X speed at which onset of natural or artificial stall warning occurs and V decreases. V and V are equal when the air - V Y X Y SW plane reaches its absolute ceiling.

takeoff safety speed for Category A aircraft V TOSS The Need for (Proper) Speed speed for best angle of climb V X Knowing and using the proper speeds for vari - speed for best rate of climb V Y ous phases of flight in your specific aircraft is obvi - maximum speed in the takeoff at which the pilot must take the first ously good airmanship. More fundamentally, it is action (e.g., apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed brakes) important for safety, because airspeed control is the to stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance. V1 also key to getting the maximum performance from your means the minimum speed in the takeoff, following a failure of the V aircraft without violating limitations that could result critical engine at VEF, at which the pilot can continue the takeoff in structural damage or failure.

and achieve the required height above the takeoff surface within the takeoff distance.

takeoff safety speed Susan Parson (susan.parson@faa.gov, or @avi8rix for Twitter fans) is editor of V FAA Safety Briefing . She is an active general aviation pilot and flight instructor.

minimum takeoff safety speed V 2min 16 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015

T O M H O F F M A N N

Your Airplane Is Ready To Print!

How 3-D Printing Technology is Taking Shape in the Aerospace Industry

ans of the television comedy series Portlandia strict penchant for jettisoning every ounce of unnec - will recall an episode where the fictional mayor essary weight. While 3-D printing does hold some F of Portland, Oregon (played by Kyle MacLach - exciting potential for the aviation industry in these lan) unveils the city’s very own 3-D printer, a device very areas, there are still numerous challenges and that promises to help bolster Portland as a first-class concerns that need to be addressed before we start city and dispel its stigma of being overly quaint. stocking up on “toner.” Let’s start by taking a closer Faced with mounting budget woes, the mayor is look at this transformative technology to see how it soon made painfully aware of the printer’s short - could benefit the aviation industry, as well as review comings, realizing he cannot merely “print” a new the FAA’s safety strategy for addressing the chal - school or a new road. His farcical expectations of lenges going forward.

what a 3-D printer can do are amusing to say the Everything’s Better in 3-D least, but I think it also speaks to the greater issue of So, what is 3-D printing? For starters, the how many misunderstandings surround this revolu - industry’s preferred term — additive manufacturing tionary new technology.

(AM) — better reflects what has developed into a To some it may seem like a passing fad, while more multi-faceted process. As the name implies, others claim it’s a panacea for all the world’s prob - AM involves a machine that adds material(s) layer lems. Neither description quite fits the bill, but it is by layer to form a 3-dimensional object. The object’s safe to say that 3-D printing, with its breakthroughs design and dimensions are driven by a computer in efficiency, durability, and cost-control, is chang - aided design (CAD) file that contains the blueprints ing the way we think about the manufacturing pro - of the virtual object.

cess as a whole. And, as this technology grows even In its earlier days (circa 1980s), “3-D printing” more sophisticated, it offers increasingly innovative was focused mainly on polymers and plastics, but it ways to produce everything from a simple plastic has now expanded to include more mainstream use cup holder to rocket engine parts that can withstand of metal, ceramic, glass and dozens of other materi - the extreme rigors of space launch.

als, the practical applications for which are mind- It seems only natural to consider how this type boggling. AM techniques have also evolved greatly, of technology could be beneficial to aerospace, an from special inkjet printer heads, to high-tech laser industry inextricably linked to expensive and time- beams that melt or sinter layers of materials together.

limited parts, complex design procedures, and a May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 17 for AM. Instead of waiting months for Photos courtesy of GEreports.com product prototypes, com - panies can design mock-ups in days, sometimes hours.

In addition, the ease with which modifications can be instantly realized before going to market is a huge burden lifted for eager entre - General Electric Aviation will begin using 3-D printed fuel preneurs.

nozzles (right) in its new CFM LEAP engines in 2016.

The Sky Is the Limit … or Is It?

“AM is a total game-changer,” says Jim The primary AM processes for metal - Kabbara, an aerospace engineer with the lic materials are grouped into two categories: FAA’s Aircraft Certification Office. “There are directed energy deposition, which directs a beam many great benefits, but also some huge risks. We of energy to melt wire or powder material that is are still trying to understand all its properties. There added; and powder bed fusion, which involves are at least 50 variables with this technology, maybe sequential scanning of a beam onto a pre-depos - more, that we need to understand better.” ited powder bed. The final step for many AM- As an example, Kabbara points out that with produced parts is a finishing process that involves traditional manufacturing techniques, there is cooling and solidification, as well as surface a long history that has led to understanding the smoothing, cleaning, and sterilizing, if needed.

effects that machining, heat treating, and forging Some AM techniques can even integrate color and can have on materials, including damage tolerance eliminate the need for painting altogether.

and fatigue. On the flip side, little is known about Waste Not, Want Not AM alloys or their mechanical properties. “Is it cast - The additive manufacturing process is quite ing? Is it welding? There are no standards for using a big step from traditional machining techniques, powder,” says Kabbara.

which, due to the advent of AM, are now identi - To help decipher those mysteries and lay the fied as “subtractive” manufacturing. This is where regulatory groundwork for introducing AM technol - objects are cut or milled from a larger piece of stock ogy, Kabbara was tasked with leading a working material, either with a machine or with hand tools group to focus on learning as much as possible.

like a blacksmith would use. Neither standout as The FAA Additive Manufacturing National Team being particularly efficient; the collection of curli - (AMNT), which first met in late 2014, includes spe - cue metal filings on the floor of a busy machine cialists and engineers from several different areas shop is a dead giveaway of the wasted material that of the FAA, including engine and airframe design, results. Then there are the limited options you have metallurgy, research and development, inspection, when it comes to the scalability of what you’re pro - and GA product certification. The team is also cur - ducing. Need that widget just an inch wider? That rently engaged with other government agencies likely would involve re-tooling or redesigning your (NASA, Department of Defense) and academia machine. Good luck with that.

(MIT, Wichita State University) to learn as much as Therein lies the beauty of AM; a fundamen - possible about the intricacies of AM. The goal of this tally new type of manufacturing whose impressive collaboration is to also assess the applicability of benefits have caught the eye of many government, current regulations to AM products and to initiate industry, and business leaders, and especially the development of guidance to allow these products those in the aerospace industry. The highlights of to be safely used in certified structure.

its resume include reduced costs (via less material, “As with any new technology, standardization is a less build-time, and fewer parts) and enhanced huge issue,” says Rusty Jones, a senior technical spe - performance (via improved strength and durability, cialist with the FAA’s Aircraft Maintenance Division decreased weight, and on-the-fly optimization). and the non-destructive testing lead for the AMNT.

Prototyping is another area that has made a name “There is a need to develop process specifications 18 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 and quality processes to assure uniformity of parts.” combustion engines used in space launches.

A lack of industry standards and guidance are Not to be outdone by these interstellar AM proj - also big concerns for the AMNT. With more com - ects is the delivery of the International Space Sta - panies already looking to use this technology, it’s tion’s first 3-D printer last fall. In December, a design important for the FAA to work proactively and set up file was beamed up to the ISS in true “Star Trek” a framework that will safely and consistently manage fashion, and voilà; a plastic ratchet wrench was born.

the introduction of AM parts. Although it wasn’t used in space, the tool will instead The AMNT is taking a first step in information be studied back on the ground to determine if there coordination with a memo it plans to issue later this are any differences in the AM process due to micro - year to all of the FAA Aircraft Certification Offices gravity. That’s good assurance for those folks aspiring and Manufacturing Inspection Offices. According to be the first on Mars a few years from now.

to Kabbara, “the memo will standardize some of the It’s not just about the com - verbiage and terms used, provide basic guidance on mercial and space transporta - It is safe to say additive manufacturing, how to respond to AM inquiries and requests in the tion industries when it comes with its breakthroughs in efficiency, field, and establish a method of tracking who comes to reaping the benefits of AM.

durability, and cost-control, is to us for AM applications.” Based on the data it Mark James, an engineer with the changing the way we think about the collects, the team will begin evaluating the founda - FAA’s Small Airplane Director - manufacturing process as a whole.

tional policy, guidance, and rulemaking needed to ate, believes AM could be a great move forward and enable use of the technology with benefit to the GA community as minimum interference. well. “In GA especially, sometimes parts are hard to find for airplanes orphaned by companies that have Print Job in Queue gone out of business,” says James, who also represents For some aerospace companies, the future of AM GA concerns on the AMNT. “Parts on demand with is now. Boeing currently has 30 AM-produced parts on no cost for warehousing could save time and money its 787 Dreamliner . Also, General Electric Aviation will for manufacturers and consumers alike. Assuming begin using 3-D printed fuel nozzles in its new CFM of course that compliance to the type design can be LEAP jet engines; a first for critical parts on an engine shown. That’s one of the hurdles we have today for platform. According to GE, the AM process will create orphaned airplanes.” a nozzle that is 25 percent lighter, five times as durable, Printer Pioneers and reduce from 18 to one the number of parts required to create it. With several thousand of these So what does the future hold with AM in the aviation world? Will we soon be able to load up an engines on order, GE is aiming to create more than airplane part design on a personal computer and just 100,000 AM-produced parts by the end of the decade.

hit the print key? That may still be a while off, but the In case you needed more proof of exciting things future is promising. Advances in AM technology are to come, a group of researchers at Australia’s Monash allowing researchers to experiment with combining University recently created the world’s first 3-D materials in new and innovative ways, which may printed jet engine. The engine was modeled from a help answer some of the long-term strength and small auxiliary power unit that was completely disas - durability issues that give some scientists pause.

sembled, scanned, and then reproduced using lasers “We’re just now scratching the surface with AM,” and metal alloy powder.

says Kabbara. “The potential is there with this tech - Yet another AM milestone was achieved by a nology, but we must use it wisely and understand group of University of California students in 2013 what we’re using. I’m hoping the FAA can become an when they successfully built and test fired a 3-D enabler for the AM industry to expand so that more printed metal rocket engine. The student project was people can realize its significant benefits.” sponsored in part by NASA, which has been quite active with several of its own AM pursuits. Just last Tom Hoffmann is the managing editor of FAA Safety Briefing . He is a com - November, NASA completed hot-fire tests on an mercial pilot and holds an A&P certificate.

advanced rocket engine thrust chamber assembly using copper alloy materials. The agency stated Learn More that this was the first time a series of rigorous tests GE Video on Additive Manufacturing confirmed that additive manufactured copper parts www.ge.com/stories/advanced-manufacturing could withstand the heat and pressure required of May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 19

Checklist SUS A N PA R SON

Categorical Confusion

I’m a stickler for accuracy when it comes to Endorsement = Completion of Specified words in general, and especially for terms used in Training aviation. You won’t ever hear me talking about a An endorsement attests to completion of ground pilot’s “license,” but I’ve mostly conceded that get - and/or flight training required for specific operating ting everyone to call it by its proper name — pilot privileges, or for airman certification testing. Except certificate — is a losing battle. However, I am still for certain endorsements made in pen and ink on fighting the good fight against the widespread ten - a student pilot certificate, endorsements are gener - dency to use the terms “certificate” and “rating” as if ally made in the pilot’s logbook. The endorsements they were synonyms. So here goes!

required by Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 fall into several broad categories: Certificate = Privilege Level Student Pilots: Because a student pilot certificate The document that the FAA issues is a certificate, has no aircraft category and class ratings, operating which Merriam-Webster defines as “a document cer - privileges and limitations for solo flight are conveyed tifying that one has fulfilled the requirements of, and exclusively through instructor endorsements that may practice in, a field.” specify not just aircraft category and class, but also A pilot is certificated to fly aircraft at one or more specific make and model. Student pilot endorse - privilege levels: Student, Sport, Recreational, Private, ments can also specify weather limitations.

Commercial, and Airline Transport Pilot (ATP).

Sport Pilots: Like a student pilot certificate, a sport Although we naturally think of flight instructors pilot certificate is issued without aircraft category and as pilots, the certificate issued to a flight instructor is class ratings. Logbook endorsements specify the cat - considered to be an instructor certificate, and not a egory, class, make, and model of aircraft that the sport pilot certificate. However, a commercial or ATP-level pilot is authorized to fly as pilot in command.

pilot certificate is generally required for issuance and Testing for Certificate or Rating: To take a exercise of a flight instructor certificate.

knowledge test or practical test for most pilot certificates and ratings, the applicant must have Rating = Operating Privilege endorsements attesting to aeronautical knowledge, A rating is “a statement that, as part of a certifi - flight proficiency, aeronautical experience, and prac - cate, sets forth special conditions, privileges, or limi - tical test preparation.

tations.” Ratings specify what, and/or how, the pilot Recurrent Training: To maintain the operating is qualified to fly.

privileges conferred by a pilot certificate or instru - Except for pilots at the student and sport certifi - ment rating, the pilot must have an endorsement for cation levels (more below), pilots at each certificate satisfactory completion of required recurrent training level are rated to fly aircraft in at least one specific (e.g., flight review or instrument proficiency check).

category and, if applicable, class. A typical rating on Aircraft Characteristics: The requirement a private pilot certificate is “airplane single engine for a type rating is limited to large (greater than land.” If you complete additional training and testing 12,500 pounds maximum gross takeoff weight) and requirements for a multi-engine class rating, your turbojet-powered aircraft. However, certain small private pilot certificate will then have ratings for “air - and piston-powered aircraft have characteristics plane single and multi-engine land.” that require additional training for safe operation.

For a pilot to legally act as pilot-in-command Endorsements related to aircraft characteristics of any aircraft that is more than 12,500 pounds include those for complex, high performance, high maximum gross takeoff weight or of any turbojet, an altitude, tailwheel, and glider ground operations.

aircraft-specific type rating (e.g., B737) is required, in addition to the appropriate aircraft category and Overrated?

class rating.

Does it matter? I won’t argue that it’s a safety Ratings are also added to a certificate when matter. Still, using correct terms is part of the “right the pilot qualifies for a certain operating privilege, stuff” for being a professionally-minded pilot. So such as an instrument rating, in a specific aircraft humor me, please, and say it right!

category and class.

20 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015

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May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 21

S U S A N PA R S O N

A Touch of Class

(and Category)

Photo by Tom Hoffmann

Perf orma nce & Privileges

t some early stage of your aviation training, stage, it wasn’t enough to parrot the textbook defini - your instructor introduced the concepts of tions. I had to actually understand these heretofore A “category” and “class.” You learned (sort of) that confusing concepts in order to explain them, first to category and class mean one thing for certification of the FAA inspector who administered the practical test aircraft, but they mean something different for certi - and then to my students. As the saying goes, words fication of pilots. If your experience was anything like matter — and these particular words are helpful in mine, you didn’t get much (if any) information about terms of understanding certification requirements for what those words meant, much less why they are performance (planes) and privileges (people).

applied differently to planes and pilots. So you duti - Aircraft Category = What Can It Do?

fully found a way to memorize the words associated As used with the certification of aircraft, the with category and class for each. You remembered term “category” refers to aircraft grouping accord - it just long enough to get through the knowledge ing to intended use and operating limitations. The test, and after that you never thought about it again.

aircraft categories can further be grouped according Sound familiar?

to whether they qualify for a standard airworthiness Once I passed my private pilot knowledge test, certificate or a special airworthiness certificate.

I personally put notions of category and class com - The following chart provides a broad summary pletely out of mind until I started working toward my of the main aircraft categories: ground and flight instructor qualifications. At that Airworthiness Category 14 CFR part General Characteristics Certificate Type 14 CFR part 25: Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes • Jets with 10 or more seats or a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) greater than 12,500 lbs • Propeller-driven airplanes with greater than 19 seats or a MTOW greater than 19,000 lbs • At least two engines Transport Standard 25 • Flown by at least two pilots • “Fail-safe” - any element can fail, but the risk of such a failure causing an accident must be extremely low.

• Load limit from -1 to +2.5 Gs (or up to +3.8 Gs, depending on design takeoff weight) 22 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 Airworthiness Category 14 CFR part General Characteristics Certificate Type 14 CFR part 23: Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes • Propeller-driven, multiengine airplanes • Seating, excl. pilot seats, of 19 or less • MTOW of 19,000 pounds or less.

Commuter Standard 23 • Approved for any maneuver incident to normal flying, stalls (except whip stalls), and steep turns, in which bank angle is not more than 60˚ • Load limit from -1.52 to +3.8 Gs • Seating, excl. pilot seats, of nine or less • MTOW of 12,500 pounds or less • Approved for non-acrobatic operation (i.e., any Normal Standard 23 maneuver incident to normal flying; stalls (except whip stalls); and lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns) in which bank angle is not more than 60˚ • Load limit from -1.52 to +3.8 Gs • Seating, excl. pilot seats, of nine or less • MTOW of 12,500 pounds or less • Approved for limited acrobatic operation: stalls (except whip stalls); lazy eights, chandelles, steep Utility Standard 23 turns; spins (if approved for the particular type of airplane). Bank angle more than 60˚ but not more than 90˚ • Load limit from -1.76 to +4.4 Gs • Seating, excl. pilot seats, of nine or less • MTOW of 12,500 pounds or less • Intended for use without restrictions, other than Acrobatic Standard 23 those shown to be necessary as a result of required flight tests.

• Load limit from -3 to +6 Gs 14 CFR part 21: Certification Procedures for Products and Parts • Manufactured under a production certificate, includ - ing aircraft assembled by another person from a kit provided by the holder of the production certificate and under the supervision and quality control of that Primary Special 21.184 holder • FAA may inspect the aircraft to determine con - formity to the type design and condition for safe operation • Agricultural • Forest and wildlife conservation 21.25 • Aerial surveying Restricted Special • Patrolling (pipelines, power lines) 21.185 • Weather control • Aerial advertising May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 23 Airworthiness Category 14 CFR part General Characteristics Certificate Type 14 CFR part 21: Certification Procedures for Products and Parts (cont.)

• Surplus military aircraft converted to civilian use under these conditions: • The aircraft has, and conforms to, a limited type certificate.

• The FAA has determined that the aircraft is safe to Limited Special 21.189 operate.

• Operations may not include carrying passengers or cargo for hire.

• FAA may prescribe additional limitations neces - sary for safe operation.

• A light-sport aircraft, other than a gyroplane, kit- Light Sport Special 21.190 built, or transitioning ultralight-like vehicle • Research and development • Show compliance with regulations • Crew training • Exhibition 21.191 21.193 • Air racing Experimental Special 21.195 • Market surveys • Operating amateur-built aircraft • Operating kit-built aircraft • Operating light-sport aircraft • Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) • Aircraft with a “provisional” category type certifi - Provisional Special 21 Subpart C cate for special operations and operating limitations This chart is by no means exhaustive, either in certification are: airplane; rotorcraft; glider; balloon; scope or in detail. For that, you need to refer to the landplane; and seaplane.

appropriate section(s) of 14 CFR. It is also important To put aircraft category and class into more to understand that the refer - familiar terms, here are a few examples based on the ences shown in the chart aircraft GA pilots are most likely to fly: As used in the certification of aircraft, address airworthiness and • Normal (category) airplane (class) the term “category” refers to aircraft certification standards, which • Utility (category) airplane (class) grouping according to intended use are only part of the story. For • Acrobatic (category) airplane (class) and operating limitations.

operating rules and limita - tions applicable to a par - Pilot Certificates & Ratings ticular aircraft category and/or class, you’ll need to Before we turn to category and class for airmen, check the appropriate sections of 14 CFR part 91.

take a look at this issue’s “Checklist” for a clarifica - The bottom line is that understanding at least tion of the very frequently garbled terminology on the basic certification requirements for each aircraft pilot certificates and ratings. A surprising number category gives you important information on what of pilots — and an even more surprising number of the aircraft can and cannot do for you.

instructors — tend to use the terms interchange - Aircraft Class = How Does It Fly?

ably, or to say “rating” when it should be “certifi - For aircraft certification purposes, “class” simply cate.” In a nutshell: refers to a broad grouping of aircraft having similar A pilot is certificated to fly aircraft at one or characteristics in terms of propulsion, flight, or more named privilege levels, which include student, landing. The major class distinctions for aircraft sport, recreational, private, commercial, and airline 24 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 transport pilot (ATP). When you talk about your pilot Here are the major class divisions: certificate , you are referring to the privilege level • Airplane category is divided into single- (e.g., private pilot). The type of certificate you hold engine land (ASEL), multi-engine land determines your basic privilege level, and each level (AMEL), single-engine sea (ASES), and multi- inherently includes certain privileges and limitations engine sea (AMES) classes (e.g., to fly — or not — for compensation).

• Rotorcraft category is divided Except for pilots at the student and sport certi - into helicopter and gyroplane classes fication levels (see “Checklist” for details), pilots at • Lighter-than-air category is divided each certificate level are rated to fly aircraft in at least into airship and balloon classes one specific category and (if applicable) class. Now • Powered parachute category is divided let’s look at what that means.

into powered parachute land and powered Airman Category = What Sort of Aircraft Can parachute sea You Fly?

• Weight-shift-control category is divided into For purposes of ratings on a pilot certificate, weight-shift-control land and weight-shift- there are seven aircraft categories: control sea • Airplane Note that the powered lift and glider categories • Rotorcraft are not divided into classes, so a rating in either of • Glider these aircraft categories will stand by itself. In other • Lighter than air cases, though, your pilot certificate will include both.

For example, the most common initial aircraft cat - • Powered lift egory and class rating on a newly-issued private pilot • Powered parachute certificate is airplane single engine land.

• Weight-shift-control Head of the Class Once you are beyond the student pilot certifica - There’s a lot to learn in aviation, and it’s under - tion level, your pilot certificate will list at least one standable if you, like me, initially let the concepts of rating that includes at least one of the seven aircraft category and class bounce off an already overtaxed categories stated above.

brain. Because of what these terms convey about Airman Class = What “Flavor” Can You Fly? aircraft performance and airman privilege, though, I hope you’ll step to the head of the class by taking a In addition to stating a category level, the pilot second look.

certificate must include at least one class rating if the aircraft category is divided into classes. (Note: A type rating is “above and beyond” a class rating; see Susan Parson (susan.parson@faa.gov, or @avi8rix for Twitter fans) is editor of “Checklist” for details.)

FAA Safety Briefing . She is an active general aviation pilot and flight instructor.

J A M E S W I L L I A M S

The Bigger BANG Theory

Photo by H. Dean Chaimberlain

The Quest for More Power

This highly modified P-51 Mustang Reno his airplane has too much power,” said no Take a Deep Breath Air Racer uses one ever. Okay, maybe it’s possible someone Allow me to introduce the magic of forced supercharging well

“T at some point in recorded history has uttered

induction. To increase the size of the bang without beyond normal that phrase — but it seems unlikely.

increasing the size of the engine or the speed at operating ranges One of the best ways to go faster in your airplane which it turns, we need to find a way to get more fuel to produce massive or your car is by adding more horsepower. There are into the cylinder. By itself, this extra fuel will cause horsepower.

several ways to accomplish this goal. Since horse - the engine to run too rich, so we need to balance power is essentially a measure of work done over time, it with more air. By cramming both extra air and increasing either the size of the “bang,” or the number fuel into the cylinder, we can get a bigger bang or of bangs per unit of time, will increase horsepower.

maintain a certain bang size at a higher altitude than The easiest way to upsize your “bang” in both automo - would be possible without forced induction. This tive and aviation applications is to add displacement, action is carried out by a pump on the front of the i.e., engine cylinder volume. A larger engine generates engine that compresses the intake air. The pumping more power but the current initiative to improve fuel can be accomplished in one of two ways.

economy and reduce emissions is pushing engine Superpower Supercharger manufacturers away from the tried and true “there’s no The first method is with a good old-fashioned replacement for displacement,” motto.

supercharger. This is a compressor — sometimes Another option for more power is for the engine called a blower — that is driven by the engine just to run faster. A higher revolution per minute (rpm) like an alternator, air conditioning unit, or any other generates more power by increasing the number accessory. The advantage to this method is that it of bangs per a given unit of time. This approach requires less plumbing and doesn’t experience any has worked quite well in cars, but doesn’t work as lag or spool time (more on that later). The main dis - effectively in airplanes due to the requirement for advantage is that the energy used to power the com - a reduction gearbox to lower the rpm to a more pressor is drawn from the engine. This drag on the manageable range for propellers. Cars naturally have engine means that a supercharger is more about net these gearboxes (transmissions), but smaller GA air - gains than absolute. In fact, some superchargers can planes generally don’t, with a few exceptions like the require well in excess of 100 horsepower to run. Even Cessna C-175 Skylark . Since neither of these options though your supercharger may be capable of adding is that great, how is a tried and true power junkie 400 horsepower to a given engine, you effectively able to increase power?

26 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 lose a percentage of that output to power the com - applied, because it can make a big difference. On pressor. So if your 400 horsepower supercharger took a standard day at sea level, a normally aspirated 50 horsepower to run, you’d net 350 horsepower aircraft would produce about 30 inches of mercury to your overall total. While it’s still very much a net (inHg) in manifold pressure, which is another way to positive, it’s not as efficient as it might be. For these measure engine power produced by a piston engine reasons, among others, supercharging has fallen out with a constant speed propeller. (We’ll round the of favor since the Second World War. This leads us to pressure up from 29.92 to make the math easier.)

our next form of forced induction. In reality, the number would be lower due to losses in the intake system. So that normally aspirated Terrific Turbocharging airplane’s engine would decrease in performance as Turbocharging is similar to a supercharger in atmospheric pressure dropped, by 1 inHg per 1,000 that it helps deliver more air to the induction system.

feet, to the point where at 5,000 feet, the theoretical It differs in how it powers the compressor. A turbo - maximum would be 25 inHg.

charger uses the exhaust gas from the engine to turn In the first form of turbocharging, we would the compressor in a way that is very similar to the look to boost the incoming manifold pressure sig - cold and hot sections of a jet engine. In this system, nificantly. This could be to 35 or 40 inHg while at sea however, the compressed air is being delivered to level, which allows us to generate more power with a an internal combustion engine rather than straight smaller engine. Turbocharging in this way can create into a combustion chamber. The key advantage of fantastic power. Great examples include the tur - turbocharging is that it captures “free” or otherwise bocharged Formula One engines of the mid 1980s, wasted energy from the exhaust gases.

which at their maximum power settings ran some - The engineers out there are probably screaming thing more than 160 inHg and turned out around “there’s no such thing as free!” — and they are right.

1,300 horsepower from a tiny 1.5 liter engine. For an The downside is that turbocharged engines tend to aviation equivalent we turn to the Reno Air Racers, run hotter and harder than their normally aspirated which pull anywhere between 70 and 130 inHg.

counterparts. Another disadvantage of turbocharging However, these planes use superchargers rather than is that to compress the air, you must first have suf - turbochargers on engines ranging between 27 liters ficient exhaust gas flowing through the turbine to run and nearly 55 liters of displacement.

the compressor. This creates a phenomenon known These applications are an example of “boosted as “turbo lag.” Turbo lag occurs when the power turbocharging.” This approach does allow the gen - delivery is delayed while the turbos spool up in eration of massive horsepower numbers, but forced response to the increased exhaust gas flow created by induction can be hard on the engine. In fact, the advancing the throttle. This creates issues in aviation, highly boosted Formula One cars could only sustain but it is more noticeable in automotive applications.

Turbocharged engines also require more disci - pline from the pilot. Depending on the setup, rapid throttle movements could potentially damage or destroy an engine. Turbochargers also require a cool down period after flight. Because the turbines spin at very high rates — at times in excess of 80,000 rpm — they require significant cooling and lubrication. This requirement is accomplished by circulating engine oil through the bearings. If you were to shut down the engine before the turbos have properly cooled, the flow of engine oil would also stop and the oil left in the turbos would literally cook, causing hard carbon deposits to build up on the bearings. This, in turn, restricts future oil flow and leads to more issues.

Give Me a Boost Before we get too deep into the technical dis - cussion, let’s look at how this technology can be Turbocharger components May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 27 Photos by George Soteropoulos Photos by Anne X Graham The P-38 Lightning (left) and P-47 Thunderbolt (right), along with the B-17 Flying Fortress , are a few of the rare turbocharged WWII airplanes.

maximum boost for two to three laps before giving tage of the thin air. This approach is generally easier up the ghost, and it is a similar story for our air on the engine, because it imposes less stress and races. That is why most boosted engines run much, lets it run at a lower temperature than the boosted much lower levels of boost. Throttle movements approach. Many manufacturers (retrofit and OEM) need to be made deliberately to avoid over-boosting even state that there is no reduction in time between these engines. overhauls for their turbo-normalized engines when compared to their normally aspirated counterparts.

The New Normal Keeping Your Cool The other way to turbocharge an airplane engine is called turbo-normalizing. This is where a turbo - One of the key control mechanisms for a charger is used to maintain sea level pressure up turbocharging system (turbo boosting or turbo- to a critical altitude. After that point, the manifold normalizing) is a waste gate. The waste gate is a valve pressure drops off at the same one inch per 1,000 in the exhaust system that limits the amount of boost feet. This allows the aircraft to fly higher and faster generated by controlling the amount of exhaust gas by making more power at altitude (than with normal that flows to the turbine. In essence, the waste gate aspiration) and having less drag due to lower air is a bypass valve that allows exhaust gases to skip the density. Essentially, the engine is performing as if it’s turbine when open. When closed, it allows all the at sea level while your airframe gets to take advan - gases to pass through the turbine. The waste gate can

Additional Training Required?

flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller, including If you are considering flying or owning a turbo - airplanes equipped with an engine control system charged airplane, here are a few training options consisting of a digital computer and associ - you may need in addition to aircraft specific ated accessories for controlling the engine and training: propeller, such as a full authority digital engine High Performance control; or, in the case of a seaplane, flaps and a Under 14 CFR section 61.31, any aircraft with an controllable pitch propeller, including seaplanes engine with more than 200 horsepower is consid - equipped with an engine control system consisting ered high performance and requires training and of a digital computer and associated accessories an endorsement from an authorized instructor for controlling the engine and propeller, such as to act as pilot in command. A turbocharger alone a full authority digital engine control. Again, a would not render the aircraft high performance by turbocharger is not considered part of a complex definition, but most turbocharged aircraft fit into airplane by definition, but many turbocharged this category. airplanes meet the criteria in other ways.

Complex Airplane Pilot Ratings Also under 14 CFR section 61.31, training and an Since the turbocharged (or turbo “normalized”) endorsement are required to operate a complex engine often allows an airplane to fly higher, the airplane. This is defined in 14 CFR section 61.1 as pilot must be instrument rated to operate the air - an airplane that has a retractable landing gear, craft when flying above 18,000 feet.

28 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015 be opened, closed, or anywhere in between to gener - a strict requirement of a turbocharger system.

ate the commanded boost pressure. Most systems The Air Up There nowadays use an automated control mechanism With the rise of turbocharging, especially in the to manage the waste gate, but some older retrofit turbo-normalized form, GA pilots are able to access systems have a manual controller the pilot must airspace like never before. That access adds flexibil - actuate. This arrangement makes setting power a ity in planning by opening up more cruising altitudes more detailed process than just pushing the throttle to avoid icing or adverse winds. But remember the forward. Even with the automated systems, a more engineers’ warning that nothing is free. With access deliberate pace in throttle adjustment is recom - to higher altitudes come other restrictions, such as mended because these systems rely on engine oil to the requirement for supplemental oxygen (14 CFR manage them. They can lag slightly in some condi - section 91.211). To take the greatest advantage of a tions, which could cause momentary over-boost turbocharged airplane, you will likely need a supple - situations. Knowing what kind of waste gate system mental oxygen system.

the aircraft has is important to how to correctly oper - ate the aircraft.

With Great Power Comes Great A natural side effect of compressing a gas is Responsibility increased heat and pressure. There is no way around Turbocharging can be a great tool to expand basic physics. Too much intense heat and pressure in the usefulness of your aircraft. While the tales of an engine is bad for any number of reasons, but one rampant engine explosions are largely unfounded, is the possibility of detonation, the spontaneous com - knowing how your system works and what that bustion of fuel in the cylinder. This is why most turbo - means is absolutely critical. As with any more charged engines have a lower compression ratio than advanced system, turbochargers require an advance their normally aspirated counterparts. Another way in your aeronautical skills.

of dealing with this side effect is an intercooler, which is like a radiator for the compressed intake air. The air James Williams is FAA Safety Briefing’s associate editor and photo editor.

gets cooled as much as possible, and it reduces the He is also a pilot and ground instructor.

risk of detonation while potentially improving perfor - mance. Intercoolers are a nice bonus, but they aren’t

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Nuts, Bolts, and Electrons S A BRIN A W OODS

Check Engine!

Everything that moves will eventually wear device that records information about the health of out and it goes without saying that your engine(s) is your engine’s fuel, ignition, induction, and turbo - one of the most expensive moving components on charging systems when it matters the most; while your aircraft. One of the best ways to keep your down your engine is running. The analysis can give you time and operating expenses low while increasing better insight into what is happening during the your safety margins is to detect and monitor engine combustion process and can act as an early warning wear and repair it before it fails. detection system.

Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Beeps, Squeaks, FADECs, and D/EECs part 91 requires that all civil aircraft be inspected at Engine diagnostic equipment can come in specific intervals to determine their overall condi - many different forms. One version is the external, tion. While most aircraft owners and operators are hand-held test kit that attaches to ignition plugs and aware of 100-hour and annual inspections, there are determines system functionality. It is a bit like a mul - other time and condition requirements that should timeter on steroids; a good test kit can check engine be considered in order to insure minimum down - compression, magnetos, ignition leads, and engine times and maximize safety margins.

timing, to name a few.

Time between overhauls, or TBO, is the manu - Engine data management (EDM) systems come facturer’s recommended number of running hours in a variety of forms and are offered by a host of dif - or calendar time before an aircraft engine or other ferent companies. These handy little devices watch component requires overhaul. This time will vary over your engine while you concentrate on flying the from make and model and is usually dependent on aircraft and, combined with a controller, can meter how complex the engine is and how it is used. TBO your mixture and exhaust gas temperature (EGT) to is important because it establishes a set schedule for optimize lean-of-peak operations. Some brands even required inspection and subsequent maintenance, offer the interpretive software and/or provide profes - but one of the many questions that beleaguer aircraft sional analysis as to what your data might indicate.

owners is when should they eventually replace items In most cases, you can upload your information that “pass” inspection.

directly to a website, and if need be, request a report Meet You Halfway when anomalies present themselves.

Interim inspections and engine monitoring The brain that makes it all happen is the DEEC can give owners (and maintenance technicians) the or EEC (digital/electronic engine control). It regu - reprieve they need by providing all of the necessary lates the functions of the injection system to ensure information to diagnose and resolve an engine repair the engine provides the power that is required of it.

before a “little wear and tear” turns into “a major An engine control unit reads a multitude of sensors problem.” These interim checks are often excellent and then manipulates the engine by adjusting a opportunities for the mechanic to discover, diagnose, series of actuators. Sensors include ones for airflow, and resolve potentially unsafe conditions before they engine cooling, throttle position, and fuel flow.

become a time consuming and costly problem. The younger, fancier cousin of the EEC is the full Interim inspections are just that — additional authority digital engine control (FADEC). Essentially inspections that go above and beyond the interval this system does everything the EEC does — it even that is required by regulation. Progressive inspec - has an engine control unit in it — but there is no tions (section 91.409) are at the discretion of the mechanical connection between the pilot and the owner, done with approval from the presiding flight fuel control (mixture is handled by the FADEC) and standards district office, and can minimize mainte - therefore engine management is much more precise.

nance downtime. This type of inspection works well All of this — the extra inspections and monitor - for aircraft that are utilized in commercial operations ing equipment — equals less distraction and better and/or experience a high number of operational aircraft performance for the operators, but the real hours on an annual basis. benefit is in being able to accurately predict, and One way to know when additional inspections then circumvent equipment failures. That means are necessary is by using an engine monitoring safer flying and less downtime (i.e., money) for all.

30 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015

Report Wildlife Strikes

Angle of Attack S A BRIN A W OODS

NTSB: Each year the National Transportation Safety we establish procedures and checklists — in particu - Board (NTSB) produces a “Most Wanted” list which lar for emergencies.

highlights key safety areas that previous years’ data Together, we must find ways to strengthen pro - has identified to be the most critical. While every cedural compliance, develop effective procedures mode of transportation is analyzed and repre - and training, and ensure that pilots do what they are sented, the aviation industry has the lion’s share of trained to do.

the recommendations. This includes rooting out inadequate company Pertaining to all modes is: disconnect from deadly procedures, ensuring comprehensive training, and distractions, end substance impairment, require reemphasizing and reinforcing operator compliance.

medical fitness for duty, and strengthen procedural Rotorcraft Safety compliance. Those specific to the aviation industry Helicopter safety is an often overlooked opera - are enhance public helicopter safety, and prevent loss tion. Lack of appreciation for deteriorating weather of control in flight in general aviation (GA).

conditions and failing to use an established “go, Disconnect!

no-go” system proved to be a factor in several Quite simply, drivers and pilots do not always helicopter incidents in the last few years. Since have their minds on the road. Smart phones, tablets, 2004, the NTSB has investigated more than 130 apps, etc, can detract from focusing on vital com - accidents resulting in 50 fatalities. While this data is munications, instruments, or procedures. While new particular to helicopter operations listed as public connectivity has enabled access to better, more timely assets (medevac, police, etc.) the same unnecessary information, it also enables distractions. The first step risks these mishap pilots incurred are prevalent toward removing deadly distractions is to disconnect everywhere in the rotorcraft community. Increased from non-critical information. Restrict activities and emphasis on sound decision-making skills, flight risk conversations during crucial aspects of flight. evaluation, formalized dispatch and flight-following procedures, and fatigue management, can go a long Fit to Fly way in positively affecting helicopter safety rates.

Both substance abuse and overall medical fit - Loss of Control ness have played a factor in transportation accidents.

While “under the influence” mishaps are staggering in GA operations still incur alarming “loss of air - motor vehicles, the aviation industry is no stranger to craft control by pilot” rates every year. Statistically, the phenomena. The prevalence of potentially impair - approach to landing, maneuvering, and climb are ing drugs has increased, as have positive marijuana the most dangerous phases of flight prone to LOC.

results. But the most startling and commonly found Losing control thousands of feet above the impairing substance in fatal crashes was diphenhydr - ground presents unique and, at times, fatal chal - amine, a sedating antihistamine found in over-the- lenges; between 2001 and 2011, over 40 percent of counter medications. fixed wing GA fatal accidents occurred because of This brings me to the latter of these two catego - this. Lack of proficiency and long intervals between ries; some pilots are simply not medically fit to fly and training sessions and flights decrease pilot flying yet they do anyway. The aviation medical certification skills. While there are many courses, aircraft adapta - system may be robust, but pilots are increasingly tions, and forums that provide ongoing education testing positive for sedating medications, obstructive and flight currency, it is ultimately the responsibility sleep apnea, symptomatic coronary heart disease, of the pilot to participate in them.

and many other cognitive and physical medical con - “The Most Wanted List is our roadmap for 2015,” ditions that deteriorate one’s ability to fly. said NTSB Acting Chairman Christopher A. Hart. “At the NTSB we want to make new strides in transporta - Follow Procedures tion safety in 2015, and we want to lay the ground - Good pilots can have bad days and a “bad day at work for years that are even safer.” the office” can turn into a real disaster. To help miti - Check out www.ntsb.gov/mostwanted to read gate the inherent risk of being human (i.e., fallible) even more about each item on the list.

32 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015

Vertically Speaking GE NE T R A INOR

Summer of Safety

The U.S. Air Force declares Memorial Day marked the lowest annual total in at least 32 years.

weekend through Labor Day weekend the “Critical Personal/private, instructional/training, and aerial Days of Summer” to reinforce the need for aviators applications had the largest percentage of those to exercise extra caution when flying and participat - accidents at 21 percent, 17 percent, and 16 percent, ing in aviation related events during these warmer respectively. Of the 128 accidents, 20 resulted in months. Warmer temperatures not only can reduce fatalities with 32 people losing their lives.

aircraft performance substantially but they can also Here are several safety tips. Readers of this have a negative effect on human performance as column have seen these recommendations before well. With little warming, extreme temperatures can but we repeat them with hopes that the downward increase fatigue levels, elevate hydration needs, and helicopter accident trend will continue.

place added stress to those working inside and out - • Avoid flying into fog or stormy weather. This side the cockpit.

may seem like common sense, but every year The FAA Rotorcraft Directorate likewise is call - the directorate investigates accidents — often ing for increased vigilance for the civil helicopter fatal — caused by pilots who took risks in bad community from May 1 through September 30 in the weather. Pressing on is never a good idea.

United States.

• Fly no lower than 1,000 feet above ground In looking at accident statistics covering the past level (AGL) whenever possible after takeoffs decade, helicopters have traditionally spiked during and landings to avoid wires, trees, and other the warmer months — with July being the worst in obstacles. For some pilots (such as aerial averaging 20 accidents. To put this in perspective, the applicators), that rule may be impractical.

average for December was seven accidents making it In these cases, helicopters should have the month yielding the least number of accidents.

wire strike protection systems to prevent Why more accidents occur in the warmer emergency situations from occurring.

months is unclear. The Rotorcraft Directorate shows • Conduct a risk analysis before each flight. Ask more flight hours are traditionally flown nationally yourself: Does the proposed task present safety in the months of June and July, whereas May and risks? What is the probability of a mishap?

August fall in the same range of average flight hours Are the risks worth taking? Sometimes the flown as during cooler months. Data shows that most wisest choice is to just turn around or land, aerial application accidents occur in the warmer even in a field or open parking lot. Questions months, which coincides with the country’s growing and investigations by federal authorities will season when weather is often less predictable.

inevitably follow. Being asked questions by the Another suspected reason is that higher summer FAA and the NTSB is better than having family temperatures lead to higher density altitudes, which members answer questions on your behalf.

reduce the lift generated by rotor blades. The relation • Use checklists to ensure helicopters are properly between the airspeed indicated on the instrument maintained and operated. The International panel and the true airspeed also are subject to air Helicopter Safety Team recommends these density changes. Furthermore, the higher density pre-departure check lists available through this altitudes decrease the power delivered by the air - link: http://easa.europa.eu/essi/ehest/2012/06/ craft’s engine, and when combined with the reduced pre-departure-check-list/ aerodynamic effects, helicopters perform more slug - gishly. Pilots can get themselves in trouble if they • Use the IM SAFE checklist to ensure you are fit fail to plan a flight carefully. They may fly too fast, to fly. Ask yourself about: Illness - Medication - carry too much weight or conduct maneuvers that Stress - Alcohol – Fatigue – Eating (and proper their helicopters were not designed for, especially in hydration).

warmer weather.

The directorate’s safety campaign, however, may (Continued on page 35) be taking hold in the helicopter community. The 128 accidents in the fiscal year that ended September 30 May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 33

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Flight Forum

Our January/February edition of FAA Safety @PilotSafetyOrg on Twitter: #PilotSafetyTip Briefing, Airspace and ATC, was a hit amongst our Commit to attending 1 [FAA safety] wings event and readers and in particular for those who follow us on reading the @FAASafetyBrief every month.

Twitter (@FAASafetyBrief ) and Facebook- (www.

facebook.com/FAA). The following is a few of the @ChetBrandon1 on Twitter: Thanks for follow - comments that were posted to social media about this ing me! As a pilot, and a safety professional, I appre - and other editions. Thanks for all of your comments ciate the work you guys do!

and keep ‘em coming!

@Blessed_Aviator on Twitter: Is that 704RC call - Ken on Facebook about talking to ATC: I’ve ing? Thinking about flying in the cold like I am? Be asked for help a time or two they have ALWAYS been sure to read the latest edition of @FAASafetyBrief.

there when I needed them. One NORCAL controller pulled me out of a jam in IMC practicing approaches FAA Safety Briefing welcomes comments. We may edit letters for style into KOAK. Spatial disorientation occurred I was and/or length. If we have more than one letter on a topic, we will select a fighting to keep it upright and together this one guy representative letter to publish. Because of publishing schedule, responses saw I was in trouble. His kind words spoken calmly may not appear for several issues. While we do not print anonymous was the saving grace he got me turned onto the letters, we will withhold names or send personal replies upon request.

localizer and into the clear. I never got a chance to If you have a concern with an immedi - thank him. If he’s reading this God bless you I’m safe ate FAA operational issue, contact your and alive today thanks to you.

local Flight Standards District Office or air traffic facility. Send letters to: Editor, FAA Chris on Facebook about talking to ATC: The Safety Briefing, AFS-850, 55 M Street, SE, controller has a job because we fly. They are there to Washington, DC 20003-3522, or e-mail help us as we do everything possible to help them.

SafetyBriefing@faa.gov.

This close relationship is called “team work” and serves all involved. Good communication promotes Aviation Safety.

Let us hear from you — comments, suggestions, and questions: email SafetyBriefing@faa.gov or use a Pat on Facebook about talking to ATC: For smartphone QR reader to go “VFR-direct” to our mailbox.

some reason I am always hesitant to ask for help. I You can also reach us on Twitter @FAASafetyBrief or on know it’s not rational. Must be an ego thing, or train - Facebook — facebook.com/FAA.

ing, not sure…. Just so hard to break the fear that I’ll be held accountable for some error I should of fore - seen. Thanks for being there, ATC.

(Vertically Speaking continued) • Watch out for complacency. Dust off your ( www.IHST.org ) to read up on the many free reports, emergency procedures manual and read it safety bulletins, and toolkits available to them.

carefully — your full attention is needed. They also should equip themselves with tips and Follow the rotorcraft flight manual’s normal best practices encouraged by the FAA Safety Team procedures and file a flight plan. Conduct a (FAAST), Helicopter Association International (HAI), thorough preflight briefing among all flight and the Helicopter Association of Canada (HAC).

participants and follow standard operating procedures and personal minimums.

Gene Trainor is a technical writer and editor for the Rotorcraft Directorate in Fort Worth. He previously worked as a newspaper reporter and editor.

For more information, pilots, mechanics and flight safety officers should visit the IHST website May/June 2015 FAA Safety Briefing 35

Postflight SUS A N PA R SON

Practical Performance

If you are in some way involved in flight train - we make knowledge test questions accurate, ing, you may have noticed that recent updates to the up-to-date, educationally sound, and relevant to Airman Testing page ( www.faa.gov/training_testing/ real-world operations in today’s National Airspace testing/ ) on the FAA’s website provide some impor - System (NAS). We are using a range of tools and tant information. Among other things, it states that processes to achieve this objective. First, there is beginning February 9, 2015, types of questions elimi - considerable real-world expertise on the board nated from the private pilot airplane knowledge test itself. Our members include air carrier, corporate, include “aircraft performance and weather questions and general aviation pilots whose industry experi - that involve multiple interpolations across multiple ence is recent. Second, the board is using a newly- charts.” I’ll come back to this specific topic shortly. developed and formally documented process for Regular readers of FAA Safety Briefing may evaluating questions for educational and opera - remember reading already about the agency’s col - tional relevance. Third, we are using the ACS coding laboration with aviation community experts on system (explained and illustrated on the Airman development of, and tran - Testing web page) to ensure that each question links sition to, the integrated to a specific ACS Area of Operation/Task.

In keeping with both industry and holistic Airman Cer - Performance-Related Results recommendations and best practices, tification Standards (ACS) On both the FAA and the industry sides, there the FAA has established a formal exam approach to airman cer - are enormous amounts of “invisible” progress and review board to improve its knowledge tification. I won’t repeat activities underway in all aspects of the airman the details here — you can test question data bank.

certification system. The announced changes to the now find extensive ACS- private pilot airplane knowledge test are important related information on the Airman Testing web page not only on their own terms, but also as a visible — but the announced improvements are only the marker of our collective commitment to improv - first of many ongoing updates and enhancements to ing the airman certification system. The deletion airman knowledge testing.

of performance questions “that involve multiple The FAA is now applying industry’s ACS-related interpolations across multiple charts” is an excel - tools and procedures to the review, revision and, even - lent example of how the new exam review board has tually, the development of knowledge test questions.

approached its task. Working together, board mem - The “Boarding” Process bers quickly concluded something most of us have While most people do tend to equate test-taking known for years: overly complicated performance with waterboard-style unpleasantries, that’s not what calculations that yield impossible “precise” answers we mean when we talk nowadays about “boarding” are, ironically, grossly inaccurate — not only in terms questions. In keeping with both industry recommen - of real-world operations, but also in terms of safety.

dations and best practices, the FAA has established a Decimal-point precision makes little sense on per - formal exam review board to improve its knowledge formance charts developed in carefully controlled test question data bank. The board is comprised of conditions and by a professional test pilot’s simula - subject matter experts from a range of FAA Flight Stan - tion of “average” pilot skills.

dards policy divisions, such as the Air Transportation As I said, it’s a monumental task, with thou - Division, the Flight Technologies and Procedures Divi - sands of questions still to be “boarded.” But just as sion, the Regulatory Support Division, and the General the journey of a thousand miles begins with a single Aviation and Commercial Division. Consistent with step, the boarding of many thousand questions is industry best practices, the exam board also includes now solidly underway.

an “outside stakeholder” who has extensive qualifica - tions in aviation, aviation training, and the overall test Susan Parson (susan.parson@faa.gov, or @avi8rix for Twitter fans) is editor of development and test management process.

FAA Safety Briefing . She is an active general aviation pilot and flight instructor.

The task is monumental, but the board mem - bers are ferociously dedicated to ensuring that 36 FAA Safety Briefing May/June 2015

PAU L C I A N C I O L O

FAA Faces

Pete Neff

Manager of the Long Beach Aircraft Evaluation Group ation includes exploring the performance envelope of the aircraft and documenting special handling and performance characteristics in the Flight Standards Board Reports. We establish the pilot type rating for new aircraft and determine whether modified aircraft qualify to maintain the same pilot type rating. We also have a team of airworthiness/ avionics experts who develop the on-wing mainte - nance procedures required to keep an aircraft in an airworthy condition.” Pete’s team was also instrumental in the opera - tional evaluation and eventual certification of the After 27,000 accident, incident, and violation free first two unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) certifi - flight hours, Pete Neff wasn’t ready to retire. He is now cated for commercial use. The team collaborated giving back to aviation as a public servant, leading one with the Los Angeles Aircraft Certification Office (LA of FAA’s five Aircraft Evaluation Groups (AEG).

ACO) to evaluate the operational risks. Along with Pete’s love for aviation started at a young age, the LA ACO team, team members prioritized the when he used to lie on the grass in his backyard to risks of the UAS operation and developed appropri - watch DC-3s fly overhead in Hartford, Conn. He also ate mitigations to assure safe operations. Pete also got to climb around a family friend’s C-45 Expedi - notes that this collaborative effort, which earned tor (military version of the “Twin Beech” airplane) the team an Innovation Team Award from the FAA quite often at the local Army Reserve airfield. Later, Administrator, represents a practical application of as a senior in college and a ROTC cadet, Pete soloed the three attributes FAA Flight Standards Service on the very same airfield he played on as a kid. He Director John Duncan describes in this issue’s Jump - completed Air Force pilot training in 1969 and flew seat department: interdependency, critical thinking, more than 830 combat hours over Vietnam.

and consistency.

“I was fortunate enough to fly seven different Looking back on his experience in GA, mili - types of military aircraft, to include the T-38, the tary, and air carrier airplanes, Pete points out that C-130, and the C-141,” notes Pete.

knowledge of the performance section of the aircraft After completing his military service, Pete manual and the discipline to apply that knowledge became an airline pilot and captained five different to each and every flight is the sign of a serious stu - transport category aircraft. He holds type ratings on dent of flight.

nine transport category aircraft to include the Airbus “We should all be students and learn something A380. In 2006, he joined the FAA as an aviation safety new on every flight. Knowledge of the performance inspector (ASI) in the General Aviation and Com - capabilities of an aircraft and the discipline to fly the mercial Division.

aircraft within the design performance envelope is Now, Pete manages a team of operational spe - a core competency of flight safety that every pilot cialists at the Long Beach Aircraft Evaluation Group.

should follow on every flight.” This team flies experimental and post-production Next for Pete and his team in the certification new or modified aircraft to evaluate their operational process are the new versions of the Bombardier suitability. The AEG evaluates the aircraft handling CSeries , Global Express , and Challenger , and Gulf - characteristics, the human factors workload of stream airplanes along with Japanese Mitsubishi and normal and abnormal cockpit duties, and the opera - Chinese regional jets.

tional suitability of the installed avionics.

“Our evaluation determines the training, check - Paul Cianciolo is an assistant editor and the social media lead for FAA Safety ing, and currency requirements a pilot must meet to Briefing . He is a U.S. Air Force veteran, and a rated aircrew member and be operational in an aircraft. Additionally, our evalu - search and rescue team leader with the Civil Air Patrol.

U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration 800 Independence Ave., S.W.

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Look Who’s Reading

FAA Safety Briefing

Air Show and

Race Pilot

Michael Goulian

takes FAA

Safety Briefing

for a “spin” .