CAA Flight Instructor Guide

by repeated drill, students can learn to say a list of words, or by rote they can learn to recite certain principles of flight. However, they can only make them meaningful if they understand them well enough to apply them correctly to real situations. If an experience challenges the learner, requires involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of past experiences, and physical activity, it is more effective than an experience in which all the learner has to do is commit something to memory2. It seems clear enough that the learning of a physical piloting skill requires experience in performing that skill. However, mental habits are also learned through practice. If students are to use sound judgement and solve problems well, they must have had learning experiences in which they have exercised judgement and applied their knowledge of general principles in the solving of realistic problems.4 Learning must have relevance Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student’s past experience affects readiness to learn. Most people have fairly definite ideas about what they want to achieve. Therefore, each student has specific goals and their needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what you are trying to get them to learn. Students learn from any activity that tends to further their goals. The effective instructor must discover the student’s goals and seek ways to relate new learning to those goals1. Learning outcomes are multiple If instructors see their objective as being only to train their student’s memory and muscles, they underestimate the potential of the teaching situation. Students may learn much that you did not intend, for they did not leave their thinking minds or feelings at home, just because these were not included in your lesson plan. Learning can be classified by type as: verbal, conceptual, perceptual, motor, problem solving and emotional. These divisions are artificial, however. For example, a class learning problem solving may learn by trying to solve real problems. In doing so it is also engaged in verbal learning and sensory perception. Each student approaches the task with preconceived ideas and feelings, and for many students these ideas change as a result of the experience. The learning process, therefore, may include many types of learning, all taking place at the same time. In another sense, while learning the subject at hand, students may be learning other things as well. They may be developing attitudes about aviation, good or bad, depending on what they experience. You must always display a professional attitude, regardless of whether or not instruction is actually taking place. This learning is sometimes called incidental5, but it may have a great impact on the total development of the student. Learning is an active process You cannot assume that students remember something just because they were present in the classroom, briefing or aircraft when you taught it. Neither can you assume that the students can apply what they know because they can quote the correct answer from the book. For the students to learn, they must attend to instruction, react and respond by relating information to their knowledge and experience, construct meaning from that interaction, and attribute results to their own effort2. If learning is a process of changing behaviour, that process must be inter-active and observable. INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY 7 Instructional theory: Learning theory Learning components Psychologists over the years have proposed various theories on learning, and from these we can gain an insight into the learning process. Listed below are some of the most widely accepted learning components, sometimes referred to as ‘Laws of learning’. Primacy What is taught first, often creates a strong, almost unshakeable impression. Therefore what is taught, and what is learnt, must be right the first time. Un-teaching is more difficult than teaching. Readiness The student learns best when they are ready to learn, motivated, and understand clearly the objectives for the lesson. Being ready to learn also entails consideration of Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (see Human behaviour). A student distracted by fatigue, stress, home or relationship issues, etc, will not be ready to learn. Relevance / Belonging Individuals learn best when they see a reason for learning. If students have a clear objective, and a well defined reason for learning, they make rapid progress. You must explain the relevance of each lesson. For example, why must the student recognise the symptoms of the approaching stall? Where does this lesson fit with those covered previously, and those lessons ahead? Repetition Those things most often repeated are best remembered6. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. Students do not learn crosswind landings from one instructional flight. You must provide opportunities for practice and must see that this process is directed toward a goal. Rewards, reinforcement, or conditioning “One of the most powerful forms of reward available to the instructor is praise”7. Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and weakened when associated with an unpleasant one. Termed the ‘Law of effect’, it is based on the emotional reaction of the learner. An experience that produces feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion or futility is unpleasant for the student. If, for example, an instructor attempts to teach landings during the first flight, the student is likely to feel overwhelmed. Impressing the student with a difficult manoeuvre can make the later teaching task difficult. It is better to tell students that a manoeuvre or problem, although difficult, is within their capabilities to perform or understand. Whatever the learning situation, it should affect the student positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction. Learning theory CAA Flight Instructor Guide 8 Intensity or arousal A vivid, dramatic or exciting learning experience teaches more than does a routine or boring experience. This implies that the student will learn more from the real thing. In contrast to in-flight instruction, the classroom limits the amount of realism that can be brought into the teaching. Instructors should use imagination in the briefing. Photographs, mock-ups, and audio-visual aids can add vividness to classroom instruction. Recency The things most recently learned are best remembered. Instructors recognise recency when they carefully plan a summary of their pre-flight briefing or post-flight critique. You must repeat, restate or re-emphasise important points at the end of the lesson. Feedback Feedback on knowledge, skills and attitudes as learning takes place is important guidance for assessment on performance and progress. This feedback should be linked to the objectives of the lesson and focused on steps to take for next lesson or for improvement. It should guide the student in developing their own ‘self-reflection’ skills for assessing their own performance when flying solo. How adults learn One view of learning that is of particular importance to the flight instructor, is that proposed by MS Knowles36 on how adults should be treated differently from children, based on their psychological differences. • Children need to know what the teacher teaches if they want to pass. • The child’s self-concept is one of dependence on the teacher. • The child’s past experience is of little worth; it is the teacher’s experience that matters • The child is ready to learn when the teacher tells them to learn. • The child is orientated toward subject matter. • The child is motivated to learn by external forces, eg, grades, parents. As flight instructors deal with adult or early adult education, how these differences affect adult learning is of some importance. • Adults need to know why; they need to see a use for their learning. • Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own lives. They resent and resist situations in which they feel others are imposing their wills on them. • Adults have a greater quantity and quality of experience, therefore more emphasis is placed on techniques which use that experience, such as group discussion and simulation exercises. • Adults become ready to learn when they see a need for learning in order to deal with real-life situations. • Adults learn most effectively when the context is orientated so they can see that the learning will help them deal with tasks or problems. • Adults are affected by external motivation, but they posses a far more powerful internal motivation through job satisfaction or self-esteem. Recommended reading For a fuller explanation of how these factors affect the adult learner, flight instructors are encouraged to read The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species by MS Knowles (1988), Chapter 3. Perception Initially, all learning comes from perceptions that are directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses. Psychologists have determined that normal individuals acquire about 75 percent of their knowledge through the sense of sight, 13 percent through hearing, 6 percent through touch, 3 percent through smell and 3 percent through taste. They have found that learning occurs most rapidly when information is received through more than one sense. Perception involves more than receiving stimuli from the five senses. Perceptions result when a person gives meaning to sensations. People base their actions on the way they believe things to be, and this will depend on many factors within each person8. The experienced flight instructor, for example, will interpret engine rough running quite differently to an inexperienced student. Because perceptions are the basis of all learning, some of the factors that affect the perceptual process are discussed below. 9 Instructional theory: Learning theory Goals and values Every experience and sensation that is funnelled into the brain is coloured by the individual’s own beliefs and value structure. Spectators at a rugby game may ‘see’ an infraction or foul differently depending on which team they support. The precise kinds of commitments and philosophical outlooks that the student holds are important for you to know, since this knowledge will assist in predicting how the student will interpret experiences and instructions. For example, the student with an interest in crop- dusting will perceive instruction differently from those interested in airlines or helicopters. Motivation is also a product of a person’s value structure; those things most highly valued are pursued while those of less importance are not. Self-concept A student’s self-image, described as ‘confident’ or ‘insecure’ has a great influence on the perception process. How a person sees themselves is a powerful factor in learning. The student who attributes success to hard work, and failure to lack of effort, will perform better than a student who attributes success to luck and failure to lack of ability9. Time and opportunity Learning depends on previous perceptions (experience) and the availability of time to relate new perceptions to the old. Therefore sequence and time available affect learning1. A student could probably stall an aircraft on the first attempt, regardless of previous experience. But the stall cannot be really learned unless some experience in normal flight has been acquired. Even with such previous experience, time and practice are needed to relate the new sensations and experiences associated with stalls in order to develop a perception of the stall. The length and frequency of an experience affect the learning rate. The training syllabus must provide time and opportunity. As a general guide for ab initio flight instruction little and often is best10. The element of threat Fear adversely affects a student’s perception by narrowing their perceptual field. The field of vision is reduced, for example, when an individual is frightened and all perceptual faculties are focused on the thing that has generated fear. Anxiety or worry (milder forms of fear) take up processing space in the working memory and may produce a “deficit in memory”11, for example, during the initial practice of steep turns, a student may focus attention on the altimeter and completely disregard outside visual references. Anything an instructor does that is interpreted as threatening makes the student less able to accept the experience you are trying to provide. It adversely affects all the student’s physical, emotional and mental faculties. Hence the extensive use, in flight instruction, of the follow-me-through exercise. The student gains perception from the feel of control inputs but more importantly in the early stages, the student gains from the elimination of fear. You need to build a climate of confidence in which the student realises that you will not allow them to put the aircraft into a dangerous situation, and so the student’s confidence in performing the manoeuvre grows. Learning is primarily a psychological process. As long as the student feels capable of coping with a situation, each new experience is viewed as a challenge. Teaching is consistently effective only when those factors that influence perceptions are recognised and taken into account. Insights Insights involve the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. To ensure that these occur, it is essential to help the student realise the way each piece relates to all the other pieces of the total pattern of the task to be learned8. As an example, in straight-and-level flight, in an aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller, the RPM will increase when the throttle is opened and decrease when it is closed. RPM changes, however, can also result from changes in pitch attitude without changes in power setting. Therefore engine RPM, power setting, airspeed and attitude are inter-related. Understanding the way in which each of these factors may affect all of the others, and understanding the way in which a change in any one of them may affect changes in all of the others, is imperative to true learning. This mental relating and grouping of associated perceptions is called insight. Insights will almost always occur eventually, whether or not instruction is provided. Instruction, however, speeds this learning process by teaching CAA Flight Instructor Guide 10 the relationship of perceptions as they occur, thus promoting the development of insights by the student. It is a major responsibility of the instructor to organise demonstrations, explanations and student practice so that the learner has the opportunity to understand the inter-relationship of experiences. Pointing out the relationships as they occur, providing a secure and non-threatening environment in which to learn, and helping the student acquire and maintain a favourable self-concept are most important in the learning process. Motivation Motivation is the dominant force that governs the student’s progress and ability to learn12. Motivations may be negative or positive, tangible or intangible, or subtle or obvious. Negative motivations are those which engender fear. They are not characteristically effective in promoting efficient learning. Positive motivations are provided by the promise or achievement of rewards. These rewards may be personal or social; they may involve financial gain, satisfaction of the self-concept, or public recognition. Some motivations that can be used to advantage by you include the desire for personal gain, the desire for personal security, the gaining of a sense of achievement, the desire for group approval, and the achievement of a favourable self-image. The desire for personal gain, either the acquisition of things or position, is a basic motivation for all human endeavours. An individual may be motivated to dig a ditch or to design an aircraft solely by the desire for financial gain. Students are like all other workers in wanting a tangible return for their efforts. If such motivation is to be effective, they must believe that their efforts will be suitably rewarded. These rewards must be constantly apparent to the student during instruction, whether they are to be financial, self interest or public recognition. The student may not appreciate why they are learning a particular lesson. If motivation is to be maintained it is important that you ensure the student is aware of the applications of the lesson. This is usually achieved through the verbal introduction to the pre-flight brief. The attractive features of the activity to be learned can provide a powerful motivation. Students are anxious to learn skills that may be used, and if they can be made to understand how each learning task relates to their goals, they will be eager to pursue it. The desire for personal comfort and security is a motivation that is often inadequately appreciated by instructors. All students want secure, pleasant conditions and states of being. If they recognise that what they are learning may promote this objective, their interest is easier to attract and hold. Insecure and unpleasant training situations retard learning. Everyone wants to avoid pain and injury. Students are likely to learn actions and operations that they realise may prevent injury. This is especially true when the student knows that the ability to act correctly in an emergency results from adequate learning. Group approval is a strong motivating force. Every person wants approval of friends and superiors13. Interest can be stimulated and maintained by building on this natural force. Most students enjoy the feeling of belonging to a group and are interested in attaining prestige among their fellow students. Every person seeks to establish a favourable self- image. This motivation can best be fostered by you through the introduction of perceptions which are based on facts previously learned and which are easily recognised by the student as achievements in learning. This process builds confidence, and motivation is strengthened as a result. Positive motivation is essential to learning. Negative motivations in the form of reproof and threats should be avoided with all but the most overconfident and impulsive students. Slumps in learning are often due to slumps in motivation. Motivation does not remain at a uniform level and may be affected by outside influences, such as physical fitness or inadequate instruction. You must tailor instruction to maintain the highest possible level of motivation and should be alert to detect and counter lapses in motivation. While the flight instructor must consider the motivation of students, it is also essential for the professional flight instructor to consider their own motivation. “The potential influence of an instructor is so great that it merits a career path and status” of its own, while “the use of flight instruction as a transient 11 Instructional theory: Learning theory position to accumulate the hours needed to progress to an airline position is a hackneyed strategy and an unfortunate syndrome for the industry”14. Levels of learning Learning may be accomplished at any of several levels. From the lowest to progressively higher levels of learning, these are: • rote learning, the ability to repeat back something one has been taught without understanding or being able to apply it, • understanding what has been taught, • application of what has been learnt, and • correlating what has been learnt with other things previously learned. For example, a flight instructor may tell a beginning student pilot to enter a turn by banking the aircraft with aileron and applying sufficient rudder in the same direction to prevent slip or skid. A student who can repeat these instructions has learned by rote. This will not be very useful to the student if there is no opportunity to make a turn in flight (application) or if the student has no knowledge of the function of the aircraft controls (correlation). Through instruction on the effect and use of the flight controls and experience in their use in straight- and-level flight, the student can develop these old and new perceptions into an insight on how to make a turn. At this point the student has developed an understanding of the procedure for turning the aircraft in flight. This understanding is basic to effective learning but may not necessarily enable the student to make a correct turn on the first attempt. When the student understands the procedure for entering a turn, and has practised turns until an acceptable level of performance can be consistently demonstrated, the student has developed the skill to apply what has been taught. Further understanding of the associated concepts are covered in the instructional techniques course syllabus when considering Bloom’s Taxonomy for Cognitive (head), Psycho-motor (hands), and Affective (heart) Domains. Learning a skill Even though the process of learning has many aspects, the purpose of instruction is usually to learn a concept or skill. The process of learning a skill appears to be much the same whether it is a motor (physical) or mental skill. To provide an illustration of motor learning, follow the directions below: • Write the word learning 15 times with your left hand (or right hand if you are left-handed). Try to improve the speed and quality of your writing. In the learning task just completed, several principles of motor learning are involved and are discussed below. Physical skills involve more than muscles The above exercise contains a practical example of the multifaceted character of learning. It should be obvious that, while a muscular sequence was being learned, other things were happening as well. The perception changed as the sequence became easier. Concepts of how to perform the skill were developed and attitudes were changed1. Motivation Where there is a desire to learn, rapid progress in improving the skill will normally occur1. Conversely, where the desire to learn or improve is missing, little progress is made. In the exercise above, it is unlikely that any improvement occurred unless there was a clear intention to improve. To improve, one must not only recognise mistakes, but also make an effort to correct them. The person who lacks the desire to improve is not likely to make the effort and consequently will continue to practise errors. Patterns to follow The best way to prepare the student to perform a task is to provide a clear, step-by-step example1. Therefore all exercises start with a demonstration. The demonstration is another way of stating the lesson objective – here is what you (the student) will be able to do at the end of this lesson. The demonstration is followed with a step-by-step follow-me-through example. CAA Flight Instructor Guide 12 Perform the skill Since you have now experienced writing a word with the wrong hand, consider how difficult it would be to tell someone else how to do it. Demonstrating how to do it will not result in a person learning the skill. Obviously practice is necessary1. As the student gains proficiency in a skill, verbal instructions mean more. Whereas a long detailed explanation is confusing to the student during early practice, comments are more meaningful and useful after the skill has been partially mastered. Knowledge of results In learning some simple skills, students can discover their own errors quite easily. In learning others, such as complex flight manoeuvres, mistakes are not always apparent. Or the learner may know something is wrong but not know how to correct it. In either case, you provide a helpful and often critical function in making certain that the student is aware of their progress. They should be told as soon after the performance as possible1, for they should not be allowed to practise mistakes. It is more difficult to un- learn a mistake and then learn it correctly, than it is to learn correctly in the first place. It is also important for students to know when they are right. Progress follows a pattern The experience of learning to write with the wrong hand probably confirmed what has been consistently demonstrated in laboratory experiments on skill learning. The first trials are slow and coordination is lacking. Mistakes are frequent, but each trial provides clues for improvement in subsequent trials. The learner modifies different aspects of the skill, how to hold the pencil, how to execute finger and hand movements. Skill learning usually follows the same pattern15. Figure 2 Typical progress pattern Periods of practice Plateau Percentage of correct performances The graph above shows a typical progress pattern. There is rapid improvement in the early trials, then the curve levels off and may stay level for significant periods of effort. Further improvement may seem unlikely. Such a development is a learning plateau, and it may signify any of a number of conditions. The learner may have reached capability limits, may be consolidating a level of skill, may have their interest wane, or may need a more efficient method for increasing progress. Keep in mind that the apparent lack of increasing proficiency does not necessarily mean that learning has ceased16. In learning motor skills, a levelling off process or plateau is normal and should be expected after an initial period of rapid improvement. This situation may cause impatience in the student. To avert discouragement, you should prepare them for this situation. Duration and organisation of lessons In planning for student performance, a primary consideration is the length of time devoted to practice. A beginning student reaches a point where additional practice is not only unproductive but may be harmful. When this point is reached, errors increase and motivation declines. The skilful instructor ends the learning experience before this point is reached. As a guide, when the basics of the manoeuvre have been achieved, it’s time to end the lesson. For example, in the initial basic stall, when the student performs the actions of control column forward centrally and then full power, the basics of the manoeuvre have been achieved. It is for future lessons to build on this success, ie, aiming for coordination of control column and power, keeping straight and minimising height loss. As a student gains experience, longer periods of practice are profitable. Evaluation versus critique If an instructor were to evaluate the fifteenth writing of the word learning, only limited help could be given toward further improvement. You could judge whether the written word was legible, evaluate it against some standard, or perhaps assign it a grade. None of these would be very useful to a beginning student. The student could profit, however, by having someone watch the performance and critique it constructively to help eliminate errors. In the initial stages, practical suggestions are more valuable to the student than a grade. As the instructor will not always be in the aircraft to give a judgement, self critique should be encouraged as a learning goal for the student. 13 Instructional theory: Learning theory Visualisation or imagery “Research on motor skill learning has provided evidence for using mental practice”1. If you were to visualise yourself raising an arm out to the side, it would be possible to monitor activity in the deltoid muscles even though no physical movement had occurred. Imagery therefore has the effect of priming the appropriate muscles for subsequent physical action. The messages passed to the brain by the muscular system during visualisation are also retained in the memory. This means that physical skills can be improved even when they are only practised in the mind. The use of handouts and questionnaires on completion of the lesson can aid the student in reliving the experience in their mind. Application of skill The final and critical problem is use. Can the student use what has been learned? Two conditions must be present: • The student must learn the skill so well that it becomes easy, even habitual, to perform. • The student must recognise the types of situations where it is appropriate to use the skill. This second condition involves transfer of learning. Transfer of learning Transfer of learning is concerned with how well the learned material is applied in actual situations. For example, the student may have learned the symptoms of the approaching basic stall and the recovery technique. But are these symptoms recognised and acted on when observed in a turn? Transfer cannot occur if the knowledge itself has not been initially mastered. This points to a need to know a student’s past experience and what has already been learned. In lesson planning, instructors should plan for transfer by organising lesson material to build on what the student already knows. Also, each lesson should prepare the student to learn what is to follow. Recommended reading Flight instructors are encouraged to read Essentials of Learning for Instruction by RM Gagne and MP Driscoll (2nd ed) (1988). Forgetting and retention – theories of forgetting Why people forget may point the way to helping them remember. Disuse A person forgets those things that are not used. But the explanation is not that simple. Experimental studies show, for example, that a hypnotised person can describe specific details of an event that would normally be beyond recall. Apparently the memory is there, locked in the recesses of the mind. The difficulty is summoning it up to consciousness8. Interference From experiments, two conclusions about interference can be drawn: • Closely similar material seems to interfere with memory more than dissimilar material. • Material not well learned suffers most from interference17. Repression Repression is the submersion of ideas into the unconscious mind. Material that is unpleasant or produces anxiety may be treated this way, but not intentionally. It is subconscious and protective. This type of forgetting is rare in aviation instruction. Retention of learning When a person forgets something it is not lost; rather it is unavailable for recall. Hunt and Poltrock offer the analogy of books in a library that are never removed from the shelves, whereas the index cards may be lost. Your problem then, is how to make certain that the student’s learning is always available for recall. The following suggestions can help. CAA Flight Instructor Guide 14 Teach thoroughly and with relevance. Material thoroughly learned is highly resistant to forgetting. Meaningful learning builds patterns of relationships in the student’s consciousness. Whereas rote learning is superficial and is not easily retained, meaningful learning goes deep because it involves principles and concepts anchored in the student’s own experience. Long-term memory is enhanced if information is well encoded, put into several different files by being explained in different ways and thus well cross- indexed (association). Retention can be assisted by stimulation of interest. Principles The following are five significant principles that are generally accepted as having a direct application to remembering: Praise Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated. Absence of praise or recognition makes recall less likely. Association Each bit of information or action, which is associated with something already known by the student, tends to facilitate later recall. Favourable attitudes People learn and remember only what they wish to know. Without motivation there is little chance for recall. The most effective motivations are internal, based on positive or rewarding objectives. Multiple senses Although we generally receive what we learn through the eyes and ears, other senses also contribute to most perceptions. When several senses respond together, fuller understanding and a greater chance of recall is achieved. Repetition Each repetition gives the student an opportunity to gain a clearer and more accurate perception of the subject to be learned, but mere repetition does not guarantee retention. Practice gives an opportunity for learning but does not cause it. Three or four repetitions provide the maximum effect, after which the rate of learning and probability of retention fall off rapidly. INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY 15 Instructional theory: Human behaviour By definition, learning is – a change of behaviour resulting from experience that persists. To successfully accomplish the task of helping to bring about this change, you must know why human beings act the way they do. Knowledge of basic human needs and defence mechanisms will aid you in organising student activities and in promoting a climate conducive to learning. The relationship between you and the student has a profound impact on how much, and what, the student learns. Consider your own experiences with your first flight instructor. You probably thought your instructor was the best, and you probably strove to emulate and please your instructor. The power and impact of role modelling must not be underestimated. The instructor directs and controls the student’s behaviour, guiding them toward their goals, by creating an environment that enables the student to help themselves. To students, the instructor is a role model, a symbol of authority. Students expect you to exercise certain controls, and they recognise and submit to authority as a valid means of control. The controls the instructor exercises – how much – how far – to what degree – should be based on generalisations of motivated human nature. • Physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play. Work may be a source of satisfaction and, if so, will be performed voluntarily. • A human being will exercise self-direction and self-control in the pursuit of goals to which they have committed themselves. • Commitment to a goal relates directly to the perceived reward for achievement, the most significant of which is satisfaction of ego. • Shirking responsibility and lack of ambition are not inherent in human nature. They are usually the consequence of experience. • The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of common problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. • Under the conditions of modern life, the intellectual potential of the average human being is only partially used. Human behaviour CAA Flight Instructor Guide 16 Your ingenuity must be used in discovering how to realise the potential of the student. The responsibility rests squarely on you. If the student is perceived as lazy, indifferent, unresponsive, uncooperative or antagonistic, the cause may lie in your methods of control. The raw material is there, and the shaping and directing of it lies in the hands of those who have the responsibility of controlling it. A productive relationship with the student depends on your knowledge of students, as human beings and of the needs, drives and desires they continually try to satisfy in one way or another. Human needs The needs of students, and of all humans, are given labels by psychologists and are generally organised in a series of levels. The ‘pyramid of human needs’ has been suggested by Abraham Maslow. Figure 1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Physical Safety Social Egoistic Self fulfillment Physical needs Individuals are first concerned with their need for food, rest, exercise and protection from the elements. Until these needs are satisfied to a reasonable degree, they cannot concentrate on learning or self-expression. Once a need is satisfied, it no longer provides motivation. Therefore each individual strives to satisfy the needs of the next higher level. Safety needs Protection from danger, threat or deprivation are called safety or security needs. These needs, as perceived by the student, are real and will affect student behaviour. Social needs If individuals are physically comfortable and have no fear for their safety, their social needs then become the prime influence on their behaviour. These needs are to belong, to associate, and to give and receive friendship and love. Many studies have demonstrated that a tightly knit, cohesive group, under proper conditions, will be more effective than an equal number of separate individuals. As students are usually separated from normal surroundings, their need for association and for belonging will be more pronounced. Egoistic needs The egoistic needs will usually have a direct influence on the student-instructor relationship. These needs are two kinds: • Those that relate to self-esteem through self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence and knowledge. • Those that relate to reputation through status, recognition, appreciation and the deserved respect of peers. Self-fulfilment needs At the apex of the hierarchy of human needs are those for self-fulfilment, for realising your own potential, for continued development, and for being creative in the broadest sense. This need of a student should offer the greatest challenge to you. Aiding another in realising self- fulfilment is probably the most worthwhile accomplishment an instructor can achieve. 17 Instructional theory: Human behaviour Defence mechanisms Certain behaviour patterns are called defence mechanisms because they are subconscious defences against unpleasant situations. People use defences to soften feelings of failure, to alleviate feelings of guilt, and to protect feelings of personal worth and adequacy. Although defence mechanisms can serve a useful purpose, they can also be hindrances. Because they involve some self-deception and distortion of reality, defence mechanisms do not solve problems. They alleviate symptoms, not causes. Common defence mechanisms are rationalisation, flight, aggression and resignation. Rationalisation If students cannot accept the real reasons for their behaviour, they may rationalise. This device permits them to substitute excuses for reasons. In addition, they can make those excuses plausible and acceptable to themselves. Rationalisation is a subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable. Flight Students often escape from frustrating situations by fleeing, either physically or mentally. To flee physically, students may develop ailments that give them satisfactory excuses for removing themselves from frustration. More frequent is mental fleeing through daydreaming. Mental fleeing provides a simple and satisfying escape from problems. If students get sufficient satisfaction from daydreaming they may stop trying to achieve their goals. Aggression Everyone gets angry. Anger is a normal, universal human emotion. In a briefing room, classroom or aircraft, extreme anger is relatively infrequent. Because of social strictures, student aggression is usually subtle. Students may ask irrelevant questions or refuse to participate in class activities. Resignation Students may become so frustrated that they lose interest and give up. The most common cause of this takes place when, after completing the early phase of a course without grasping the fundamentals, a student becomes bewildered and lost in the advanced phase. From that point learning is negligible, although the student may go through the motions of participating. The instructor’s role in human relations To minimise student frustration and achieve good human relations are basic instructor responsibilities. Keep students motivated Students gain most from wanting to learn rather than being forced to learn. Often students do not realise how a particular lesson or course can help them reach an important goal. Each lesson must have relevance. When they can see the benefits or purpose of a lesson or course, their enjoyment and their efforts will increase. Keep students informed Students feel insecure when they do not know what is expected of them or what is going to happen to them. For example, consider your own feelings before your first basic stall lesson. Instructors can minimise such feelings of insecurity by telling students what is expected of them and what they can expect, not just the control inputs to use. Approach students as individuals When instructors limit their thinking to a group without considering the individuals who make up that group, their effort is directed at an average personality which really fits no one18. After giving the same lesson several times, it is easy for you to overlook this aspect. Each individual has a personality which is unique and which should be constantly considered. CAA Flight Instructor Guide 18 Give credit when due When students do well, they wish their abilities and efforts to be noticed. Otherwise they become frustrated. Praise from you is usually ample reward and provides incentive to do even better. Praise given too freely, however, becomes valueless. Constructive feedback Although it’s important to give praise and credit when deserved, it’s equally (not more) important to identify mistakes and failures. However, to tell students that they have made errors and not provide explanations does not help them. Errors cannot be corrected if they are not identified, and if they are not identified they will probably be perpetuated through faulty practice. If the student is briefed on the errors made, and is told and shown how to correct them, progress and accomplishment can be made. Be consistent Students want to please their instructor. Therefore, students have a keen interest in knowing what is required to please you. If the same thing is acceptable one day and not the next, the student becomes confused. Your philosophy and actions must be consistent. This often leads to a desire by the student to fly with only one instructor. Admit errors No one, including the students, expects an instructor to be perfect. You can win the respect of students by honestly acknowledging mistakes. If you try to cover up or bluff, the students will often sense it. Such behaviour destroys student confidence in you. If in doubt about some point, you should admit it. You should report back to the student after seeking advice from the supervising instructor, CFI, or recognised texts. Good human relations promote effective learning. INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY 19 Instructional theory: Effective communication Communicating, for an instructor, is an essential skill. Improving communication skills depends on an understanding of the process. In this chapter we look at the elements of the communication process and the barriers to successful communication. Basic elements of the communication process Communication takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another person or group. Its effectiveness is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received19. The basic process of communication is composed of three elements: • The source – sender, speaker, writer, instructor, transmitter, etc. • The symbols – words, signs, actions, music, etc. • The receiver – listener, reader, student, etc. These elements are interrelated, and that which affects one influences the others. If a listener has difficulty in understanding the symbols a speaker is using and indicates confusion, the speaker may become puzzled and uncertain, losing control of ideas. Communication effectiveness is diminished. On the other hand, when a listener reacts favourably, a speaker is encouraged, and force is added to communication. Communication is a complicated two-way process. The source The effectiveness of a person acting in the role of communicator is related to at least three basic factors. First, their ability to select and use language influences their ability to select meaningful symbols for the listener or reader. For example, if you want to teach Greek it’s useful to know the Greek alphabet. Second, communicators consciously or unconsciously reveal attitudes about themselves, about the ideas they are trying to transmit, and about their receivers. These attitudes must be positive if they are to communicate effectively. They must indicate that they believe their message is important. Communicators must make it clear to their listeners or readers that they believe there is a need to know the ideas presented. Effective communication CAA Flight Instructor Guide 20 Third, successful communicators speak or write from a broad background. Communicators must exercise great care to make certain they communicate ideas and feelings that are meaningful to their receivers. Often a speaker or writer will depend on a narrow, highly technical or professional background, with its associated vocabulary, which is meaningful only to others of a similar background. Reliance on technical language to express ideas often impedes effective communication. Symbols At its basic level, communication is achieved through the use of simple oral and visual codes. The letters of our alphabet when translated into words are a basic code. Common gestures and facial expressions and body language form another20. Words and gestures may be projected in isolation, but ideas are communicated only when symbols are combined into meaningful wholes as sentences, paragraphs and chapters. Each part is important for effective communication. Communicators must carefully select ideas if they are to convey messages which receivers can react to and understand. They must determine which ideas are best suited to starting and concluding the communication, and which ideas clarify, emphasise, define, limit and explain – all of which form the basis for the effective transmission of ideas from source to receiver. The development of ideas culminates in the choice of medium best suited for transmission. Most frequently, communicators select the channels of hearing and seeing. Occasionally, the channel of feeling, by touching or manipulating, can be used effectively. The most successful communicator, however, uses a variety of channels. Receiver Communication succeeds only in relation to the reaction of the receiver. When the receivers react with understanding and change their behaviour accordingly, then – and only then – has communication been effective21. To understand effective communication, at least three characteristics of receivers must be understood19. First, the receiver’s ability to question and comprehend the ideas that have been transmitted. Communicators can capitalise on this by providing an atmosphere which encourages questioning. Communication is most effective when the feedback loop is available to obtain further clarity to ensure the message is correctly received. Second, the receiver’s attitude, which may be one of resistance, willingness or passive neutrality. Whatever the attitude, communicators must gain the receiver’s attention and then retain it. Generally, the more varied the communicative approach the more successful they will be in this respect. Third, the receiver’s background, experience and education define the target at which communication must be aimed. Communicators must assess their receiver’s knowledge and use that assessment as a guide for selecting techniques for transmission. The major barriers to effective communication are usually found in this particular area. Barriers to effective communication The nature of language and the way it is used often lead to misunderstandings. These misunderstandings stem primarily from three barriers to effective communication: • Lack of a common core of experience • Confusion between the symbol and the thing symbolised • Use of abstractions. 21 Instructional theory: Effective communication Lack of a common core of experience Probably the greatest single barrier to effective communication is the lack of common experience between communicator and receiver. Communication can be effective only to the extent that the experiences – physical, mental or emotional – of the people concerned are similar22. Words do not transport meanings from speaker to listener in the same manner as a truck carries bricks from one location to another. Words never carry precisely the same meaning from the mind of the communicator to that of the receiver. Consider your own experience as a communicator. Recall telling someone of your experiences on holiday. Although you tried to describe the experience vividly, you may have felt that the receiver didn’t get the full picture of your holiday. Words, spoken or written, do not transfer meanings; they are merely stimuli that a communicator uses to arouse a response in the receiver. The nature of the response is determined by the receiver’s past experience with the words and the things to which they refer20. These experiences give the words their meaning – which is in the mind of the receiver, not in the words themselves. Words cannot communicate meaning unless the listener or reader has had some experience with the concepts or objects to which the words refer23. Consider the effect of your communication if your listener had never been on a holiday. Confusion between the symbol and the thing symbolised Words are simply representations. They represent anything that exists or that is experienced. Consider language as a map. A useful map accurately represents some specified territory; language should correspond to the objects or concepts that it represents. Like a map that contains errors, a statement that contains inaccuracies implies a relationship that does not exist. Use of abstractions Concrete words refer to objects that we can experience directly. Abstract words, on the other hand, stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced, for things that do not call forth mental images in the mind of the receiver. For example, assuming a similar core of experience, if a communicator is discussing a particular fighter aircraft and refers to it as the stealth-fighter, the listeners immediately get a mental image of this aircraft (clearly the accuracy of that image will be affected by experience). The name stealth-fighter represents a concrete reality that can be seen, heard and touched. If, however, the communicator uses just the words fighter aircraft the listeners do not necessarily form a specific mental image of the stealth-fighter because there are a number of aircraft that fit that description. If the communicator uses just the word aircraft, the term is so abstract that the listeners cannot form a mental image of the stealth-fighter at all. Abstract words do not bring forth specific items of experience in the minds of receivers. Although abstractions are convenient and useful, they can lead to misunderstandings. When abstractions are used in communication, they should be linked with specific experiences through examples and illustrations. The level of abstraction should be reduced wherever possible by using concrete and specific words24. In this way the communicator narrows and gains better control of the image produced in the mind of the listener or reader. CAA Flight Instructor Guide 22 INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY Effective teaching must be based on the principles of learning discussed in Learning theory. The learning process does not seem to be naturally divisible into a definite number of steps. Sometimes it occurs almost instantaneously, as when a child learns about heat from touching a hot stove. In other cases, learning is acquired only through long, patient study and diligent practice. A close examination of the teaching process reveals that different recognised authorities specify a varying number of steps. Here we will concern ourselves only with the four basic steps25 that can be applied either to ground lectures or flight instruction. They are: • Preparation • Presentation • Application • Review and evaluation. The teaching process 23 Instructional theory: The teaching process Preparation For each lesson or instructional period, you must refer to the syllabus and determine what can reasonably be covered in the time available. From this information, the objective of the lesson is set. The objective is a statement of what the student will be able to do on completion of the lesson26. For an objective to result in the desired learning outcome it must: • Be achievable. The objective must be something the student could reasonably be expected to be able to do, given their past experience. If the student cannot achieve the objective, motivation may be adversely affected. • Be observable. The objective must be observable by both student and instructor. For example, “The student will know the symptoms of the approaching stall” is not an observable objective, whereas “The student will state the symptoms of the approaching stall” is observable. The observed performance is what evaluation should be based on. • Be measurable. The objective must have some limits by which both you and student can measure acceptable performance27. For example, “State the symptoms of the approaching stall in the correct order without error”. The parameters stated need not be perfection or final test parameters. They should relate directly to what it is you expect the student to be able to do at the end of this lesson. In addition a statement may be made as to the conditions under which the student must perform, for example, whether by using a briefing handout or from memory. In summary, in the objectives you spell out what the student is expected to do, how well, and under what conditions28. In your instructional techniques course, this will be described as Performance, Standard, and Conditions. Care must be taken in preparing an objective to ensure that it accurately describes the desired learning outcome. The objective “to state the symptoms” is aimed at the knowledge level and could be achieved without the student ever having experienced a stall. Therefore, assuming the student achieved the above objective under the conditions stated, the following learning outcomes would result: • the student can read a list from top to bottom; or • the student has memorised a list from top to bottom. To write a lesson objective, ask yourself these questions: • What is it I expect the student to be able to do at the end of this lesson? • How will I know that they are doing it? • How well should they do it? and, if applicable, • Under what conditions? Preparing objectives in this way not only gives the student a clear idea of what is expected of them at the end of the lesson, but, more importantly, also focuses your attention directly on what it is you want your student to achieve as a result of your instruction. To achieve a desired learning outcome, multiple objectives may be required. If you find you have more than three objectives for a lesson, serious consideration should be given to breaking the lesson down into smaller units. Preparation must involve the development of a detailed written lesson plan if the instructional period is to be effective. The lesson plan is your statement of lesson objectives, the procedures and facilities to be used in presenting it, and the specific goals to be attained. The development of lesson plans by instructors signifies, in effect, that they have taught the lessons to themselves before teaching the lesson to students. The use of a lesson plan should: • Assure a wise selection of material and eliminate unimportant details. • Ensure due consideration is given to each part of the lesson. • Aid the presentation of material in a suitable sequence. • Give the inexperienced instructor confidence. Preparation should also include pre-lesson handouts29 or assigned reading to be completed by the student before the lesson. As part of the preparation, you should make certain that all necessary supplies, materials and equipment are readily available and that the equipment is operating properly before the student arrives. CAA Flight Instructor Guide 24 Presentation It is your presentation of the knowledge and skills that make up the lesson. The choice of the method of presentation is determined by the nature of the subject matter and the objective. The lecture method is suitable for presenting new material, for summarising ideas and for showing relationships between theory and practice. For example, it is suitable for the presentation of a ground school lesson on aircraft weight and balance. This method is most effective if accompanied by instructional aids and training devices. In the case of a lecture on weight and balance, a whiteboard could be used effectively, so could a seesaw. The demonstration-performance method is desirable for presenting a skill, such as use of the flight navigation computer. Great care must be taken in using this method, to ensure that the demonstration follows the correct steps in the proper order, so the student gets a clear picture of each separate part of the operation. Application Application is the student’s use of the ideas presented by you. This is where you discover if the images transmitted are similar to those received by the student, and if transfer of learning has occurred. In a classroom situation, the student may be asked to explain the new material, or to perform an operation. For example, at the end of a lesson on the use of the navigation computer, the student may be asked to work a flight-planning problem involving the computation of groundspeed and drift. In classroom and flight instructing situations, portions of your explanation and demonstration are alternated with student practice. It is rare that you complete an explanation and demonstration and then expect the student to complete the performance. It is very important that the student perform the manoeuvre or operation the right way the first few times, for this is when habits are established. Faulty habits are difficult to correct. The emphasis is on the correct sequence – not the speed at which it is performed. Speed of performance may be an important goal, but it should not take precedence in the early stages of instruction. After reasonable competence has been attained, the manoeuvre or operation should be practised until correct performance becomes almost automatic. Review and evaluation Review and evaluation is an integral part of each classroom or flight lesson. Before the end of the instructional period, you should review what has been covered and require students to demonstrate the extent to which the lesson objectives have been met. Evaluation may be informal and noted only for use in planning the next lesson, or it may be recorded to certify the student’s progress. In either case, the student should be aware of their progress. In flight training, you must remember that it is difficult for students to obtain a clear picture of their progress, since they have little opportunity for a direct comparison with others, especially in the early phases of training. The students recognise that they are in a competitive situation unlike any previously experienced. The unseen competitor is that intangible competency which must be achieved. The student’s own evaluation can only be subjective. Direct comparisons for them are only possible with the performance of the instructor. Only you can provide a realistic evaluation of performance and progress. In addition to knowledge and skills learned during the period just completed, each lesson should review things previously learned. If faults not associated with the present lesson are revealed, they should be pointed out. Such corrective action as is practical within the limitations of the situation should be taken immediately; more thorough remedial action must be included in future lesson plans. The evaluation of student performance and accomplishment during a lesson should be based on the stated objective30. For example, in the taxiing briefing, if you have stated the objective that the student should watch for potholes, then you cannot evaluate the student’s performance as poor when the student taxies through a pothole, especially if the student states that they saw the pothole. Recommended reading Effective Aviation Instruction by RA Telfer (1993) in Aviation Instruction and Training14 p219-236 Preparing Instructional Objectives26 by RF Mager (1984) INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY 25 Instructional theory: Teaching methods The instructor’s skill is determined to a large degree by the ability to organise material and to select and utilise a teaching method appropriate to a particular lesson. Of the various teaching methods in common use, only the lecture method, the guided discussion and the demonstration-performance method will be covered here. The pre-flight briefing will be discussed at length in the Briefings section. There is no definite line of division between these methods; some material requires the use of more than one method or a combination of methods25. For example, a demonstration of how to use the aircraft radio, followed by a thorough explanation, is essentially a lecture. The use of programmed instruction will also be discussed, as many organisations employ the principles of this type of instruction, primarily through computers when it is known as Computer-Based Training (CBT). Organising material Regardless of the teaching method used, you must organise the material in a logical sequence31. One effective way to organise the lesson, and the simplest, is: • Introduction • Development • Conclusion25 Appendix A expands on this sequence. Introduction The introduction serves several purposes: • To establish common ground between you and the students • To capture and hold the attention of the student or group Teaching methods CAA Flight Instructor Guide 26 • To establish the objectives of the lesson • To indicate what material is to be covered and how this relates to the entire course • To point out why the student should learn the material and what benefits the student can expect • To establish a receptive attitude toward the lesson • To lead into the lesson development. The introduction should be free of stories or incidents that do not help the students focus their attention on the lesson objective. Also, a long or apologetic introduction should be avoided, as it will dampen student interest in the lesson. The introduction sets the stage for learning by gaining the student’s attention, providing motivation and giving an overview of the material to be covered and its relevance to the course goals. Attention For information to be perceived, it first must be attended to32. Gaining and maintaining the student’s attention, therefore, is of prime importance to you. One of the most effective methods is novelty24. For example, a lesson on aircraft weight and balance might start with two students, of obviously different weights, being asked to balance out a see-saw. Or you might make an unexpected or surprising statement, eg, “for most aircraft a rearward C of G increases airspeed!” and then inviting debate by asking why. Or you might begin by telling a true story of an incident that relates to the subject and thereby establishes a background or reason for learning. No matter how you introduce the lesson, the main concern should be to gain the student’s attention and focus it on the subject33. Motivation The introduction should offer the students specific reasons for needing to be familiar with, to know, to understand, to apply or to be able to perform whatever they are about to learn. This motivation should appeal to each student personally. Overview Every lesson introduction should contain an overview that tells the student or group what is to be covered during the lesson. A clear, concise presentation of the objective and the key ideas is absolutely critical, for it gives the student a road map of the route to be followed. Development The development of the lesson is the main part. Here you develop the subject matter in a manner that helps the students achieve the desired outcome or objective. You must organise the material logically to show the relationships of the main points34. Usually these primary relationships are shown by developing the main points in one of the following ways25: • from past to present • from simple to complex • from known to unknown • from most to least frequently used. From past to present In development from past to present, the subject matter is arranged chronologically. This is most suitable when history is an important consideration, eg, when tracing the development of GPS (Global Positioning System). From simple to complex The simple to complex pattern helps you lead the student from simple facts or ideas to an understanding of complex concepts. In studying lift, for example, the student might begin by considering the action of a river as it enters and leaves a narrow gorge – and finish with the lift formula. From known to unknown By using something the student already knows you can develop concepts. For example, in discussing the properties of the magnetic compass you could revise the previously learned properties of a simple bar magnet. From most to least frequently used Some information or concepts are common to all who use the material. This pattern starts with the most common use before progressing to rarer ones. For example, dead-reckoning techniques for navigation are learnt before applying them to lost procedures. Under each main point in a lesson the subordinate points should lead naturally from one to another. With this arrangement, each point leads logically into, and serves as a reminder of, the next. Meaningful transitions keep the students oriented, aware of what they have covered and what is to come25. 27 Instructional theory: Teaching methods Organising a lesson so that the students will grasp the logical relationships of ideas is not an easy task. The use of a lesson plan provides guidance on how to link ideas in a logical sequence. This type of organisation is necessary if the students are to learn. Poorly organised information is of little or no value to the student. Conclusion An effective conclusion retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to the objective. This review and wrap-up of ideas reinforces the student’s learning and improves retention. It will generally include some assessment of whether or not the learning has been achieved. No new ideas should be introduced in the conclusion. Lecture method You should know how to prepare and present a lecture and should understand the advantages and limitations of this teaching method. The lecture is used primarily to introduce students to a new subject, but it is also a valuable method for summarising ideas, showing relationships between theory and practice, and re- emphasising main points35. The lecture method is adaptable and has several advantages. Lectures may be given to either small or large groups, they may be used to introduce a complete training program or a single unit of instruction, and they may be combined with other teaching methods to give added meaning and direction. The success of a lecture depends on your ability to communicate effectively as well as the ability to plan, develop and review the lesson. In other methods of teaching (demonstration- performance, guided discussion) the instructor receives direct reaction from the students in the form of verbal or motor activity. During a lecture, however, feedback is not as direct and is therefore harder to interpret. You must develop a keen perception for subtle responses from the class (facial expressions, apparent interest or disinterest) and be able to interpret the meaning of these reactions and adjust the lesson accordingly. Planning the lecture The competent instructor knows that careful preparation is a major factor in the successful presentation of a lecture. Preparation should start well in advance of the presentation. Four steps should be followed in the planning phase of preparation: • Establish the desired outcome and therefore the objective • Research the subject • Organise the material • Plan interactive classroom activities. Developing the lecture In supporting key points or ideas in the lesson, you must work on the assumption that the student may neither believe nor understand the points to be covered. In developing the lesson you should use the recommended text for the subject as well as statistics, comparisons and meaningful examples. After completing the preliminary planning and writing the lesson plan, you should rehearse the lecture to build self-confidence. During rehearsal the mechanics of using notes, visual aids and other instructional techniques can be smoothed out. You should have your supervisor attend the practice sessions and observe the presentation critically. This critique will help you judge the adequacy of supporting materials and visual aids. Suitable language During the lecture, simple rather than complex words should be used whenever possible. Errors in grammar and vulgarisms detract from an instructor’s dignity and reflect upon the intelligence of the students. If the subject includes technical terms, you should clearly define each one so that no student is in doubt about its meaning12. Whenever possible, you should use specific rather than general words. For example, the specific words “a leak in the fuel line” tell more than the general term “mechanical defect”. Another way you can enliven the lecture is to use sentences of varying length. Too many short sentences result in a choppy style; long sentences, unless carefully constructed, are difficult to follow. To ensure clarity and variety, you should use a mixture of short and medium length sentences25. CAA Flight Instructor Guide 28 Whatever the style adopted by you, a display of enthusiasm will greatly affect the success of any presentation. “Probably the best teachers of adults are people who are enthusiastic amateurs in their subject – at least, amateurs at teaching it”36. Delivery methods You can deliver a lecture in one of four ways, by: • reading written notes • reciting memorised material • speaking without notes from an outline • speaking impromptu without preparation. The lecture is probably best delivered by speaking without notes from an outline. You speak from a mental or written outline but do not read or memorise the material to be presented. Because the exact words with which to express an idea are left to the moment, the lecture is more personalised and provides more opportunity for enthusiasm, than one which is read or spoken from memory. Since you talk directly to the students, rather than head down reading from notes, the reactions of the students can be readily observed, and adjustments can be made to their responses. You have better control of the situation, can change the approach to deal with any situation as it arises, and can tailor each idea to suit the individual responses of the students. For example, if you realise from their puzzled expressions that a number of students fail to grasp an idea, that point can be elaborated upon until the reactions of the students indicate that they understand. Overall, this method reflects your personal enthusiasm and is more flexible than other methods. For these reasons it is likely to hold the interest of the students. Use of notes An instructor who is thoroughly prepared can usually speak effectively without notes. If the lecture and outline have been carefully prepared and rehearsed there should be no real difficulty. However, if your preparation has been limited, you may find it necessary to use notes. Notes do have certain advantages. They assure accuracy, jog the memory, and dispel the fear of forgetting. An instructor should not, however, be overly dependent on notes. Use them sparingly and unobtrusively, but make no effort to hide them from the students. Notes should be written legibly or typed, and they should be placed on the lectern where they can be consulted easily, or held if you walk about the platform. Formal versus informal lectures The lecture may be conducted in either a formal or informal manner. Learning is best achieved if students participate actively in a friendly, relaxed atmosphere. Therefore, use of the informal lecture, which includes active student participation, is encouraged. A formal lecture, however, is still to be preferred on some occasions, such as introducing new subject matter. You can achieve active student participation in the informal lecture through the use of questions27. In this way, the students are encouraged to make contributions that supplement the lecture. You can use questions for one or more of the following purposes: • to determine the experience and background of the students • in order to tailor the lecture to them, • to add variety and stimulate interest, or • to check student understanding. It remains your responsibility to plan, develop and present the lesson. The students should not be relied on for any significant portion of the lesson development. Advantages of the lecture In a lecture, you can present many ideas in a relatively short time. Facts and ideas that have been logically organised can be concisely presented in rapid sequence. Lecturing is the most economical teaching method in terms of the time required to present a given amount of material. It is also a convenient method for large groups. The lecture can be used to ensure that all students have the necessary basic information background to learn a new subject12. You can offer students with varied backgrounds a common understanding of principles and facts. For example, in learning about aircraft performance, the factors affecting aircraft take-off and landing distances could be covered in a lecture, before moving on to a demonstration- performance on the use of take-off and landing performance charts. 29 Instructional theory: Teaching methods If students do not have the time required for research or access to reference material, information they need can be presented in a lecture. The lecture can usefully and effectively supplement other teaching methods. A brief introductory lecture can give direction and purpose to a demonstration. For example, a lecture on the triangle of velocities could precede a demonstration of the use of the navigation computer. A lecture can also prepare students for a discussion by telling them something about the subject matter to be covered. For example, the effects of fatigue on pilot performance followed by discussion on individual experiences. Disadvantages of the lecture As a teaching method the lecture cannot provide for all desired learning outcomes. Motor skills can not be learned by listening to a lecture. Too often the lecture does not provide for student participation and, as a consequence, many students willingly let you do all the work. Learning is an active process, and the lecture tends to foster passiveness and teacher-dependence on the part of the students12. The lecture does not enable you to estimate the student’s progress before additional material is introduced. Within a single period, you may unwittingly present more information than students can absorb. The lecture method provides no accurate means of checking student learning. Instructors find it difficult to hold the attention of all the students throughout a lecture37. The successful lecture relies heavily on your skill in speaking. Recommended reading 53 Interesting Things to do in Your Lectures33 by G Gibbs et al (1991) Planning an Instructional Sequence27 by WJ Popham et al (1970) Guided discussion method In contrast to the lecture, where you provide information, the guided discussion relies on the students to provide ideas, experiences, opinions and information. An instructor may use this method after the students have gained some knowledge and experience, during classroom periods or pre-flight and post-flight briefings. This method is particularly applicable to CPL and your own instructor training. Fundamentally, the guided discussion is the reverse of the lecture method. You should aim to draw out what the students know, rather than telling them. You must remember that the more intense the discussion and the greater the participation, the more effective the learning will be. You must be sure that all members of the group follow the discussion, and that all are treated impartially. You must encourage questions, exercise patience and tact, redirect questions to other members of the group where possible, and comment on all responses. Use of questions In the guided discussion, learning is produced through the skilful use of questions38. The instructor often uses a question to open up an area for discussion, which may be directed at the entire group to stimulate thought or a response from each group member. Its purpose is to get discussion started. For example, “What can you tell me about lift?” The rhetorical question is similar in nature because it also spurs group thought. For example, “What is lift?” you answer the rhetorical question, however, and it is more commonly used in the lecture. After the discussion develops, you may ask a follow-up question to guide the discussion. For example, “What is the relationship between true airspeed and lift?” The reasons for using a follow-up question may vary. You may want a student to explain something more thoroughly, or may need to bring the discussion back to a point from which it has strayed. If, however, a response is desired from a specific individual, perhaps to encourage participation, a direct question may be asked of that student. Be certain to acknowledge the response. Rather than give a direct answer to a student’s question, you may elicit the answer by redirecting the original question (or a modified version of it) back to the individual, to another student, or to the entire group. Questions used to evaluate or measure student learning should require a specific answer relating to the material covered. For example, “If true airspeed is doubled, and everything else remains constant, by how much will the lift increase?” The question, “Any questions?” should rarely, if ever, be used. CAA Flight Instructor Guide 30 Questions should: • Have a specific purpose • Have a clear meaning • Contain a single idea • Stimulate thought • Require definite answers • Relate to previously taught information. Planning a guided discussion Planning a guided discussion is similar to planning a lecture. In addition the following suggestions27 may help: Select a topic the students can profitably discuss Unless the students have some knowledge to exchange with each other, they cannot reach the desired learning outcomes by the discussion method. If necessary, set assignments that will give the students an adequate background for discussing the lesson topic. For example, “Research factors which may influence the successful outcome of an engine failure after take-off”. Establish a lesson objective and desired learning outcomes Through discussion, the students develop an understanding of the subject by sharing knowledge, experiences and backgrounds. Consequently, the objective is normally stated at the understanding level of learning. For example, “To explain the factors which may influence the successful outcome of an engine failure after take-off”. The learning outcomes should stem from and be related to the objective. For example, “Recognise the value of a pre-take-off emergency brief, develop situational awareness and be aware of aircraft performance limitations”. Conduct adequate research to become familiar with the topic While researching, you should always be alert for ideas on the best way to tailor a lesson for a particular group of students. For example, a lecture or discussion on the use of the aircraft radio could profitably be combined with a visit to the control tower. During the research process, you should collect (or set an assignment for the students to collect) appropriate background reading material. Such material should be well organised and based on the fundamentals. Organise the main points of the lesson in a logical sequence The guided discussion has three main parts – introduction, discussion and conclusion. The introduction consists of gaining attention, motivation and overview. During the discussion, you should ensure that the main points build logically to the objective, minimising the possibility of a rambling presentation. The conclusion consists of the summary and re-motivation. Plan at least one question for each desired learning outcome In preparing questions, you should remember that the purpose is to bring about discussion, not merely to get answers. Questions that require only short answers such as “yes” or “four” should be avoided25. Questions framed to encourage discussion usually start with “how” or “why”. For example, “Why does altitude affect take-off performance?” rather than “Does altitude affect take-off performance?” The first question invites discussion, the second, an answer of “yes”. Student preparation “Involving the student so that learning becomes co-operative produces superior results to those achieved by competitive or individual approaches.”14 It is your responsibility to encourage students to accept responsibility for their learning, by contributing to and profiting from, the discussion. Students should be made aware of the lesson objective and be given pre-lesson research or study to complete. If you have no opportunity to assign preliminary work, it is advisable to give the students a brief general overview of the topic during the introduction. Under no circumstances should students without some background in a subject be asked to discuss that subject. Guiding a discussion Introduction A guided discussion is introduced in the same manner as a lecture. The introduction should include an attention step, a motivation step and an overview of key points. To encourage enthusiasm and stimulate discussion, you should show enthusiasm, “it’s infectious”14, and create a relaxed, informal atmosphere. Each student should 31 Instructional theory: Teaching methods be given the opportunity and encouragement to discuss aspects of the subject. You must make the student feel a personal responsibility to contribute, and that their ideas and active participation are wanted and needed. “The instructor’s job is not as simple as ensuring that the syllabus is presented to the student.”14 Discussion You open the discussion by asking one of the prepared questions. After asking a question you should give the students a chance to react25. You have the answer in mind before asking the question, but the student has to think about the question before answering. You must be patient while the students figure out the answer. It takes time to recall data, word an answer or think of an example. The more difficult the question, the more time the student will need to produce an answer. Sometimes students may not understand the question. Whenever you detect this, the question should be restated in a slightly different form. Alternatively, the question may need to drop down a level in Bloom’s Taxonomy for cognitive domain. Once the discussion is under way, you should listen attentively to the ideas, experiences and examples contributed by the students during the discussion. During preparation, you will have anticipated the responses that indicate the students have a firm grasp of the subject. As the discussion proceeds, you may find it necessary to stimulate the students to explore the subject in greater depth or guide the direction of the discussion and encourage them to discuss the topic in more detail. By using how and why follow-up questions, you should be able to guide the discussion toward the objective of understanding the subject. Once the students have discussed the ideas that support the objective, you should summarise what the students have accomplished. In a discussion lesson, an interim summary is one of the most effective tools available to you to bring ideas together. In addition, the interim summary may be used to keep the group on the subject or divert the discussion to another member. Throughout the discussion it is desirable to record ideas, facts and agreements so that the group can see relationships and the progress that has been made. The whiteboard is suitable for this purpose. Brainstorming is a special version of this process, where all ideas on a subject – no matter how weird – are recorded without criticism and then discussed by the group. This method is useful for creating an informal, relaxed atmosphere. The use of drop sheets in small groups is another useful tool in capturing information that may benefit from longer exposure on the wall compared to cleaning the board. Conclusion A guided discussion is closed by summarising the material covered. In the conclusion, you should tie together the various points or topics discussed and show the relationships between the facts brought forth and the practical application of these facts25. As an example, in concluding a discussion on engine failure after take-off, an instructor might give statistical results of the attempted turn back as against other options. The summary should be brief but not to the point of incompleteness. If the discussion revealed that certain areas are not understood by one or more members of the group, you should clarify this material. Demonstration-performance method The demonstration-performance method is used extensively in flight instruction during the air exercise and is based on the principle that we learn by doing. Students learn physical or mental skills by performing those skills under supervision. An individual learns to write by writing, to weld by welding, and to fly an aircraft by performing flight manoeuvres. Great care must be taken in using this method, to ensure that the demonstration follows the correct steps, in the proper order, so that the student gets a clear picture of each part of the operation. The demonstration-performance method has five essential phases: • Explanation • Demonstration • Instructor supervision • Student performance • Evaluation. Explanation “If telling was the same as teaching we would all be so smart we could hardly stand it.”39 CAA Flight Instructor Guide 32 In flight training, the explanation phase is served by the pre-flight briefing. Explanations must be clear, pertinent to the objectives of the lesson, and based on the known experience and knowledge of the students. You must convey to the student the precise actions they are to perform, the expected result of those actions, and the possible effects of those actions on the student. Before leaving this phase, you should ask questions so as to determine if there is understanding of the procedure to be followed. Demonstration Before the demonstration, you direct the attention of the student to no more than two items to be closely observed during the demonstration. These are the one or two items you consider vital for the execution of the skill. For example, in the steep turn, “note the aircraft nose attitude and bank angle in relation to the horizon”. Then you must show the student the actions necessary to perform the skill. As little unrelated activity as possible should be included in the demonstration if the student is to clearly understand that you are accurately performing the actions previously explained. Therefore, there is no verbal patter during this phase. The demonstration serves as a physical restatement of the objective, “here is what you will be able to do at the end of this lesson”. If, because of unanticipated circumstances, the demonstration does not closely conform to the explanation, the discrepancy should be immediately acknowledged and explained. Instructor supervision, student performance Instructor supervision and student performance involve separate actions, but they are performed concurrently, so they are discussed here under a single heading. During the first phase of instructor supervision, you guide the student through the various components required to perform the skill through the use of patter and follow-me-through. Immediately thereafter you should give the student an opportunity to perform the skill, coaching as necessary. The second phase of student performance requires the student to practise in order to learn the skills. Therefore, adequate time must be allocated for this student activity. During this phase, feedback should be gradually reduced and finally eliminated40. Where the demonstration-performance method is used in group instruction (weight-and- balance computations, or use of the navigation computer, for example), before terminating the performance phase, opportunity should be given for the operation to be completed at least once independently, with supervision on an as-needed basis. Evaluation In this phase you judge student performance. The student displays whatever competence has been attained, and you discover how well the skill has been learned. From this measurement you determine the effectiveness of the instruction provided. To measure each student’s ability to perform, you require the students to work independently. Therefore, throughout this phase, you must not ride the controls nor offer verbal or body language cues. Any comment as to how well any individual performed the skill must be in relation to the stated objective for the lesson, not necessarily on perfection of the skill or flight test parameters. Programmed instruction Programmed instruction is a method of developing self-instructional materials in textbook form or for computers12. As student’s progress through programmed instructional material, they make a response to each increment of instruction. The material offers them immediate feedback by informing them of the correctness of their responses. The successful completion of each of these increments takes the student one step closer to the intended learning outcome. The major characteristics of programmed instruction are: • A clear statement of what the student will be able to do after training • Careful sequencing of material • Presentation of material in steps which challenge students but do not exceed their ability • Active student responses 33 Instructional theory: Teaching methods • Immediate confirmation of answers • Test and revision of material until the desired learning outcome is achieved. This approach carries students, step by step, to the learning objectives. In this respect, programmed instruction is generally more tutorial than typical classroom instruction. It gives the student not only what they are to learn, but also guides them in how they are to learn. Types of programmed instruction Programmed instruction may be branched or linear. Branched Typically, branched instruction gives more information than linear and then requires an answer to be chosen from the multiple-choice type. Each answer has a reference page to turn to. If the correct answer is chosen, new material will be presented. If an incorrect answer is chosen, remedial material will explain where the student went wrong. For an example of this type of instruction, read Preparing Instructional Objectives26 by RF Mager. This type of programmed instruction is well suited to use with computers41. Linear In linear programmed instruction, the material is itemised and presented in very small steps. A student is prompted so that invariably the correct response is given. Materials are carefully designed to offer as much review as needed to assure the degree of retention appropriate to the subject matter, the learning situation and the needs of the student42. The student responds by writing words into spaces provided for that purpose. Linear programming may also be designed to elicit other types of responses. Answers may be given mentally or orally and simple tasks may be performed. Sequences of more complicated tasks that make up a complete procedure may be required. After completing the response, the student immediately confirms the correctness of the response by comparing it to the programme answer before continuing. Thus, the student progresses smoothly, with a continuous awareness of being correct giving a sense of satisfaction. If the programme is properly constructed, the student will, at a comfortable rate and almost effortlessly, learn the material presented43. Proponents of this system14 attribute its success to the reinforcement it provides and the repetition it uses. If a student encounters the same fact, idea or concept in a number of ways, and if reinforcement or reward occurs each time a correct answer is made, learning takes place. Each block of new subject matter contains obvious cues to the correct response. Thus, a student finds it virtually impossible to make errors. As a student approaches the learning objective, cues are gradually withdrawn until the student supplies complete answers without being cued. For an example of linear type programmed instruction, see the Climbing and descending briefing – the presentation of the forces acting on the aircraft in a climb. To the casual observer, this sequence may seem unduly simple. To the student who is totally unfamiliar with the subject matter, however, it offers a sort of learning game. CAA Flight Instructor Guide 34 INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY Evaluation is an integral part of the learning process. Whenever learning takes place, the result is a change in