Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Revision 2

November 2008 To: Nicholas A. Sabatini cc: Dan Jenkins Associate Administrator for Aviation Safety Manager, Air Carrier Training Branch AVS-1 AFS-210 800 Independence Avenue, SW 800 Independence Avenue, SW FOB 10-A, Room 1000 West FOB 10-A, Room 831 Washington, DC 20591 Washington, DC 20591 cc: Greg Kirkland cc: Gloria LaRoche Acting Manager, Air Transportation Division Aviation Safety Inspector AFS-200 Air Carrier Training, AFS-210 800 Independence Avenue, SW 800 Independence Avenue, SW FOB 10-A, Room 831 FOB 10-A, Room 831 Washington, DC 20591 Washington, DC 20591 Dear Mr. Sabatini: We are pleased to provide you this “Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Revision 2”. This document was developed in response to FAA request for us to convene an industry and government working group to develop guidance to flight crews as it pertains to issues associated with operations, unintentional slowdowns, and recoveries in the high altitude environment. In the interest of defining an effective document, it has been decided to introduce this package as a supplement to the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid first released in 1998. While the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid specifically addressed airplanes with 100 seats or greater, the information in this supplement is directly applicable to most jet airplanes that routinely operate in this environment. This supplemental information has been inserted in the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Rev 2 completed October 2008. As a group of industry experts, we are confident we achieved the goal of defining a reference that will be effective to educate pilots so they have the knowledge and skill to adequately operate their airplanes and prevent upsets in a high altitude environment. The key point is that no reference material published is of value unless it is used. To that end, we implore the FAA to produce language to support implementation of this material that will motivate operators to use it. Indeed, the current Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid serves as an excellent example of a collaborative reference produced at the insistence of the FAA, with little endorsement or requirement for implementation. The industry result is an assortment of products available with no standard reference. This competes against the very motivation for producing a collaborative document in the first place. Several recommendations have been provided to our team from the FAA certification group. We are encouraged they continue to look at ways to improve future aircraft. We are confident this supplement and the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid, for airplanes in service today, are effective references, if implemented, to provide flight crews information and skills that respond to the suggestions this FAA group are studying. Your review and agreement to the attached Training Aid will allow us to produce and deliver it to industry. Sincerely, Captain Dave Carbaugh The Boeing Company Co-chair Upset Recovery Industry Team Bob Vandel Flight Safety Foundation Co-chair Upset Recovery Industry Team August 6, 2004 Dear Sir/Madam: It is a pleasure to provide to you this “Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Revision 1”. Our goal is to see it implemented within your organization and throughout the aviation industry. This training tool is the culmination of a painstaking, concentrated effort of an industry and Government working group representing a broad segment of the aviation community. The training aid was originally released in 1998 using the same industry and Government process. These teams were composed of both domestic and international experts representing a wide range of knowledge and interests. This updated consensus document represents the most recent information available on upset recovery training. We are providing this training aid to you as a means of enhancing knowledge of, and recovery from, airplane upset situations. The information and techniques presented in this training aid are aimed at industry solutions for large swept-wing turbofan airplanes typically seating more than 100 passengers. Other type airplanes may have characteristics that are different and guidance from the manufacturers of these types of airplanes should be followed. The training recommended in this aid was based on the capabilities of today’s modern airplanes and simulators. It is hoped that training organizations will find this material easy to adapt to their training programs and equipment. The modular design of the training allows the individual training departments to use the segments that provide benefits to their organizations. The industry team agreed that a training program that stresses academic understanding and practical simulation would provide the individual pilot the tools necessary to recover should an upset situation occur. Today’s modern simulators, when kept within the boundaries of valid data, provide an adequate environment in which to perform the recommended training and exposure to upset recovery. The incorporation of this Upset Recovery Training Aid into your training programs is strongly recommended. In order to reduce the number of loss of control accidents we must have a consistent industry standard of knowledge and training regarding airplane upset recovery. We hope the use of this training aid will help us all to improve aviation safety. Sincerely, Captain Dave Carbaugh The Boeing Company Co-Chair Upset Recovery Industry Team Captain Larry Rockliff Airbus Co-chair Upset Recovery Industry Team 1 Supplement #1 High Altitude Operations Supplement #1 to the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Assembled by the Industry Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Team, October 5, 2008 Introduction This document is intended to supplement the Air- plane Upset Recovery Training Aid Rev 1 that was released in August 2004. It addresses the issues as- sociated with operations, unintentional slowdowns, and recoveries in the high altitude environment. While the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid addressed airplanes with 100 seats or greater, the information in this document is directly applicable to most all jet airplanes that routinely operate in this environment. This information has also been inserted in the Airplane Upset Recovery Train- ing Aid Rev 2 completed October 2008. Consult the operations manual for your airplane type, as that information takes precedent to the following guidance. An industry working group was formed to develop this guidance at the request of the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. The working group consisted, in scope, of both domestic and international organizational represen- tatives from the airline, manufacturer, regulatory, industry trade, and educational segments. The goal of this group was to educate pilots so they have the knowledge and skill to adequately operate their airplanes and prevent upsets in a high altitude environment. This should include the ability to recognize and prevent an impending high altitude problem and increase the likelihood of a success- ful recovery from a high altitude upset situation should it occur. This working group was formed as a result of the United States National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recommendations from a high altitude loss of control accident and other recent accidents and incidents that have occurred under similar condi- tions. The NTSB recommendations stated that pilots should possess a thorough understanding of the airplane’s performance capabilities, limitations, and high altitude aerodynamics. The guidance in this document is intended to supplement the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid in these areas. There have been other recent accidents where for various reasons (e.g. trying to top thunderstorms, icing equipment performance degradation, unfamil- iarity with high altitude performance, etc.) crews have gotten into a high altitude slowdown situation that resulted in a stalled condition from which they did not recover. There have been situations where for many reasons (e.g. complacency, inappropri- ate automation modes, atmospheric changes, etc.) crews got into situations where they received an Table of Contents Page Introduction .............................................................................................................................................1 High Altitude Aerodynamics...................................................................................................................2 L/D Max ..................................................................................................................................................2 Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics .........................................................................6 Stalls........................................................................................................................................................6 Altitude Exchange For Airspeed ............................................................................................................7 Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft .............................................................................................................8 Additional Considerations .....................................................................................................................9 Exercise: High Altitude Stall Warning ..................................................................................................11 2 SECTION 4 approach to stall warning. Some of the recoveries from these warnings did not go well. This supple- ment is intended to discuss these possible situations, and provide guidance on appropriate training and recommendations for knowledge, recognition, and recovery. For example, a recent incident occurred where an airplane experienced an environmental situation where airspeed slowly decayed at altitude. The crew only selected maximum cruise thrust, instead of maximum available thrust, and that did not arrest the slowdown. The crew decided to descend but delayed to get ATC clearance. Airplane slow speed buffet started, the crew selected an inappropriate automation mode, the throttles were inadvertently reduced to idle, and the situation decayed into a large uncontrolled altitude loss. This incident may easily have been prevented had the flight crew acted with knowledge of information and techniques as contained in this supplement. In another high altitude situation, the crew decided to use heading select mode to avoid weather while experiencing turbulence. The steep bank angle that resulted from this mode quickly caused slow speed buffeting. The crew’s rapid inappropriate response to disconnect the autopilot and over-control the airplane into a rapid descent in poor weather ex- acerbated the situation. These real world examples provide evidence towards the need for more detailed training in high altitude operations. High Altitude Aerodynamics To cope with high altitude operations and prevent upset conditions, it is essential to have a good understanding of high altitude aerodynamics. This section represents terms and issues pilots need to understand thoroughly in order to successfully avoid upset conditions or cope with inadvertent encounters. As a purely practical matter, it is useful to identify high altitude operations as those above flight level 250 (FL250 or 25,000 feet). The great majority of passengers and freight is now being carried in turbojet-powered airplanes, virtually all of which regularly operate at altitudes above FL250 where high speeds and best economy are attained. While aerodynamic principles and certain hazards apply at all altitudes, they become particularly significant with respect to loss of control (or upset) at altitudes above FL250. For these reasons and others, this training aid defines high altitude as any altitude above FL250. High Altitude Operations -Regulatory Issues The high altitude environment has a number of specific references within regulations. They include: criteria defining maximum operating altitude and service ceilings, required high altitude training, flight crew member use of oxygen, passenger briefings, airspace issues, transponder usage, and Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) re- quirements. Although this information is necessary knowledge for flight crews, this document will focus on the information necessary to prevent and recover from upsets in the high altitude environment. There are a number of aerodynamic principles that are necessary to understand to have a good grasp of high altitude performance. L/D Max The lowest point on the total drag curve (as indicated in figure 1) is known as L/D max (or Vmd-minimum drag speed). The speed range slower than L/D max is known as slow flight, which is sometimes referred-to as the “back side of the power-drag curve” or the “region of reverse command”. Speed faster than L/D max is considered normal flight, or the “front side of the power-drag curve”. Normal flight (faster than L/D max) is inherently stable with respect to speed. When operating in level flight at a constant airspeed with constant thrust setting, any airspeed disturbance (such as turbulence) will result in the airspeed eventually returning to the original airspeed when the total thrust has not changed. Slow flight (slower than L/D max) is inherently unstable with respect to speed and thrust settings. When operating at a constant airspeed with constant thrust setting, any disturbance causing a decrease in airspeed will result in a further decrease in airspeed unless thrust is increased. As in Figure 1, the lower speed will subject the airplane to increased drag. This increase in drag will cause a further decrease in airspeed, which may ultimately result in a stalled flight condition. Flight slower than L/D max at high altitudes must be avoided due to the inefficiency and inherent instability of the slow flight speed range. When operating slower than L/D max, and where total drag exceeds total thrust, the airplane 3 Supplement #1 will be unable to maintain altitude and the only remaining option to exit the slow flight regime is to initiate a descent. External factors, such as changing winds, increased drag in turns, turbulence, icing or internal factors, such as anti-ice use, auto-throttle rollback, or engine malfunction or failure can cause airspeed decay. Heavily damped auto-throttles, designed for pas- senger comfort, may not apply thrust aggressively enough to prevent a slowdown below L/D max. Slower cruising speeds are an issue. As airplanes are pushed to more efficient flight profiles to save fuel, it may dictate high altitude cruising at lower Mach numbers. The net result is the crew may have less time to recognize and respond to speed deterioration at altitude. At all times, pilots must ensure that flight slower than L/D max is avoided in the high altitude environment. Proper flight planning and adherence to published climb profiles and cruise speeds will ensure that speeds slower than L/D max are avoided. As an airplane climbs and cruises at high altitude, flight crews should be aware of terms that affect them. Crossover Altitude Crossover Altitude is the altitude at which a speci- fied CAS (Calibrated airspeed) and Mach value represent the same TAS (True airspeed) value. Above this altitude the Mach number is used to reference speeds. Optimum Altitude Optimum Altitude is defined as an altitude at which the equivalent airspeed for a thrust setting will equal the square root of the coefficient of lift over the coefficient of drag. In less technical terms, it is the best cruise altitude for a given weight and air temperature. A dramatic increase in temperature will lower the optimum altitude. Therefore, when flying at optimum altitude, crews should be aware of temperature to ensure performance capability. Optimum Climb Speed Deviations Airplane manuals and flight management systems produce optimum climb speed charts and speeds. When increased rates of climb are required, ensure speed is not decreased below L/D max. Evidence shows that inappropriate use of vertical speed modes is involved in the majority of slow speed events during high altitude climbs. Thrust Limited Condition and Recovery Most jet transport airplanes are thrust limited, rather than low speed buffet limited, at altitude, especially in a turn. It is imperative that crews be aware of outside temperature and thrust available. To avoid losing airspeed due to a thrust limit, use flight management systems/reduced bank angle as a routine for en-route flight if it incorporates real-time bank angle protection, or routinely select a bank angle limit of 10-15 degrees for cruise flight. If a Figure 1. Airspeed versus drag in level flight 4 condition of airspeed decay occurs at altitude, take immediate action to recover: Reduce bank angle • Increase thrust – select maximum continuous • thrust if the airplane’s auto-throttle system is maintaining thrust at a lower limit Descend • If a high drag situation occurs where maximum available thrust will not arrest the airspeed decay, the only available option is to descend. Maximum Altitude Maximum altitude is the highest altitude at which an airplane can be operated. In today’s modern airplanes it is determined by three basic charac- teristics which are unique to each airplane model. It is the lowest of: Maximum certified altitude (structural) that is de- • termined during certification and is usually set by the pressurization load limits on the fuselage. Thrust Limited Altitude – the altitude at which • sufficient thrust is available to provide a specific minimum rate of climb. Buffet or Maneuver limited altitude – the altitude • at which a specific maneuver margin exists prior to buffet onset. Although each of these limits is checked by modern flight management computers the available thrust may limit the ability to accomplish anything other than relatively minor maneuvering. The danger in operating near these ceilings is the potential for the speed and angle of attack to change due to turbulence or environmental factors that could lead to a slowdown or stall and subsequent high altitude upset. In early turbojet era airplanes the capability to reach what is called absolute ceiling or “coffin corner” could exist. This is where if an airplane flew any slower it would exceed its stalling angle of attack and experience low speed buffet. Additionally, if it flew any faster it would exceed Mmo, potentially leading to high speed buffet. All airplanes are equipped with some form of stall warning system. Crews must be aware of systems installed on their airplanes (stick pushers, shakers, audio alarms, etc.) and their intended function. In a high altitude environment, airplane buffet is sometimes the initial indicator of problems. Maneuvering Stability For the same control surface movement at constant airspeed, an airplane at 35,000 ft experiences a higher pitch rate than an airplane at 5,000 ft because there is less aerodynamic damping. Therefore, the change in angle of attack is greater, creating more lift and a higher load factor. If the control system is designed to provide a fixed ratio of control force to elevator deflection, it will take less force to generate the same load factor as altitude increases. An additional effect is that for a given attitude change, the change in rate of climb is proportional to the true airspeed. Thus, for an attitude change for 500 ft per minute (fpm) at 290 knots indicated air speed (KIAS) at sea level, the same change in attitude at 290 KIAS (490 knots true air speed) at 35,000 ft would be almost 900 fpm. This character- istic is essentially true for small attitude changes, such as the kind used to hold altitude. It is also why smooth and small control inputs are required at high altitude, particularly when disconnecting the autopilot. Operating limits of modern transport category airplanes are designed so that operations within these limits will be free of adverse handling char- acteristics. Exceeding these limits can occur for various reasons and all modern transport airplanes are tested to allow normal piloting skill to recover these temporary exceedences back to the normal operational envelope. It is imperative to not over- react with large and drastic inputs. There is no need to take quick drastic action or immediately discon- nect a correctly functioning autopilot. Pilots should smoothly adjust pitch and/or power to reduce speed should an overspeed occur. In the high altitude flight area there is normally adequate maneuver margin at optimum altitude. Maneuver margin decreases significantly as the pilot approaches maximum altitude. Flying near maximum altitude will result in reduced bank angle capability; therefore, autopilot or crew inputs must be kept below buffet thresholds. The use of LNAV will ensure bank angle is limited to respect buffet and thrust margins. The use of other automation modes, or hand flying, may cause a bank angle that result in buffeting. When maneuvering at or near maximum altitude there may be insufficient thrust to maintain altitude and airspeed. The airplane may initially be within the buffet limits but does not have sufficient thrust to maintain the necessary airspeed. This is a common item in many high altitude situations where airplanes slow down to 5 Supplement #1 the lower buffet limits. These situations can be illustrated with performance charts. Figure 2 shows a typical transport category air- plane optimum and maximum altitude capability. When temperature increases the maximum altitude capability decreases significantly. This is a situation where maneuver buffet margins are adequate but temperature is affecting thrust capability to sustain airspeed at the higher altitudes. Figure 3 shows that for normal cruise speeds there is excess thrust available at this fixed weight and altitude. When trying to turn using 30 degrees of bank, the drag exceeds the normal maximum cruise thrust limit. If the pilot selects maximum continuous thrust (MCT) then there is enough thrust to maintain the bank angle in the same situation. Figure 2. Typical optimum versus maximum altitude Figure 3. Drag reduced by bank versus available thrust 6 Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics Weight and Balance limitations must be respected. An airplane that is loaded outside the weight and balance envelope will not exhibit the expected level of stability and will result in aircraft handling that is unpredictable and may not meet certification requirements. This is a serious issue, particularly in an aft loading situation where stall recovery may be severely affected. The problem may be exacerbated at high altitude. At high altitude, an aft loaded airplane will be more responsive to control pressures since it is less stable than a forward loading. Of interest to pilots is that the further aft an airplane is loaded, less effort is required by the tail to counteract the nose down pitching moment of the wing. The less effort required by the tail results in less induced drag on the entire airplane which results in the most efficient flight. Some airline load planning computers attempt to load airplane as far aft as possible to achieve efficiency. Some advanced airplanes use electronic controls to help improve airplane handling with aft loading. Mach Tuck and Mach Buffet In some airplanes, at speeds above Mmo, a phenom- enon called mach tuck will occur. Above critical Mach number the speed of an airplane at which airflow over any part of the wing first reaches Mach 1.0 a shock wave will begin to form on the wing and mach buffet will occur. Mach buffet will continue to increase with increased speed and the aft movement of the shock wave, the wing’s center of pressure also moves aft causing the start of a nose-down tendency or “tuck.” Because of the changing center of lift of the wing resulting from the movement of the shock wave, the pilot will experience pitch down tendencies. In modern transport airplanes this phenomenon has been largely eliminated. Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude There are two kinds of buffet to consider in flight; low speed buffet and high speed buffet. As altitude increases, the indicated airspeed at which low speed buffet occurs increases. As altitude increases, high speed buffet speed decreases. Therefore, at a given weight, as altitude increases, the margin between high speed and low speed buffet decreases. Proper use of buffet boundary charts or maneuver capability charts can allow the crew to determine the maximum altitude that can be flown while still respecting the required buffet margins. At high altitudes the excess thrust available is lim- ited. Crews must be aware that additional thrust is available by selecting maximum available/continu- ous thrust at any time. However, in extreme airspeed decay situations MCT may be insufficient. Proper descent techniques will be necessary in order to prevent further airspeed decay into an approach to stall and stall situation. Stalls Fundamental to understanding angle of attack and stalls is the realization that an airplane wing can be stalled at any airspeed and any altitude. Moreover, attitude has no relationship to the aerodynamic stall. Even if the airplane is in descent with what appears like ample airspeed, the wing surface can be stalled. If the angle of attack is greater than the stall angle, the surface will stall. Most pilots are experienced in simulator or even airplane exercises that involve approach to stall. This is a dramatically different condition than a recovery from an actual stall because the technique is not the same. The present approach to stall technique being taught for testing is focused on “powering” out of the near-stalled condition with emphasis on minimum loss of altitude. At high altitude this technique may be totally inadequate due to the lack of excess thrust. It is impossible to recover from a stalled condition without reducing the angle of attack and that will certainly result in a loss of altitude, regardless of how close the airplane is to the ground. Although the thrust vector may supplement the recovery it is not the primary control. At stall angles of attack, the drag is very high and thrust available may be marginal. Also, if the engine(s) are at idle, the ac- celeration could be very slow, thus extending the recovery. At high altitudes, where the available thrust is reduced, it is even less of a benefit to the pilot. The elevator is the primary control to recover from a stalled condition, because, without reducing the angle of attack, the airplane will remain in a stalled condition until ground impact, regardless of the altitude at which it started. Effective stall recovery requires a deliberate and smooth reduction in wing angle of attack. The elevator is the primary pitch control in all flight conditions, not thrust. 7 Supplement #1 Altitude Exchange For Airspeed Although stall angle of attack is normally constant for a given configuration, at high altitudes swept wing turbojet airplanes may stall at a reduced angle of attack due to Mach effects. The pitch attitude will also be significantly lower than what is expe- rienced at lower altitudes. Low speed buffet will likely precede an impending stall. Thrust available to supplement the recovery will be dramatically reduced and the pitch control through elevator must be used. The goal of minimizing altitude loss must be secondary to recovering from the stall. Flight crews must exchange altitude for airspeed. Only after positive stall recovery has been achieved, can altitude recovery be prioritized. An airplane is stalled when the angle of attack is beyond the stalling angle. A stall is characterized by any of, or a combination of, the following: Buffeting, which could be heavy at times a. A lack of pitch authority b. A lack of roll control. c. Inability to arrest descent rate. d. These characteristics are usually accompanied by a continuous stall warning. Weather effects that could cause a slowdown or stall at high altitudes At high altitudes the upper air currents such as the jet-stream become significant. Velocities in the jet- stream can be very high and can present a beneficial tailwind or a troublesome headwind. Windshear at the boundaries of the jet-stream can cause severe turbulence and unexpected changes in airspeed or Mach number. This windshear, or other local disturbances, can cause substantial and immediate airspeed decreases in cruise, as well as climb situa- tions. If the airplane is performance limited due to high altitude and subsequently encounters an area of decreasing velocity due to wind shear, in severe cases the back side of the power curve may be encountered. The pilot will have to either increase thrust or decrease angle of attack to allow the air- speed to build back to normal climb/cruise speeds. This may require trading altitude for airspeed to accelerate out of the backside of the power curve region if additional thrust is not available. ICING – Use of Anti-Ice on Performance Pilots must understand that occasionally icing does occur at high altitudes and they must be prepared to use anti-ice. Careful monitoring of flight conditions is critical in this decision making. Appropriate and judicious use of anti-ice equipment at high altitude is very important. One must be aware of the fact that the use of anti-ice has a negative effect on the available thrust. In some cases, it may not be possible to maintain cruise speed or cruise altitude at high altitude with anti-ice on. Pilots should also be aware of the specific flight planning parameters for their particular flight. In-flight Icing Stall Margins In-flight icing is a serious hazard. It destroys the smooth flow of air on the airplane, increasing drag, degrading control authority and decreasing the ability of an airfoil to produce lift. The airplane may stall at much higher speeds and lower angles of attack than normal. If stalled, the airplane can roll or pitch uncontrollably, leading to an in-flight upset situation. Even with normal ice protection systems operat- ing properly, ice accretion on unprotected areas of the airplane may significantly increase airplane weight and drag. Activation of an artificial stall warning device, such as a stick shaker, is typically based on a pre-set angle of attack. This setting gives a warning prior to actual stall onset where buffeting or shaking of the airplane occurs. For a clean airplane, the pilot has adequate warning of impending stall. However, with ice, an airplane may exhibit stall onset characteristics be- fore stick shaker activation because of the effect of ice formations on reducing the stall angle-of-attack. In this case, the pilot does not have the benefit of a stick shaker or other stall warning. Flight crews must be especially wary of automa- tion during icing encounters. Autopilots and auto- throttles can mask the effects of airframe icing and this can contribute to ultimate loss of control. There have been several accidents in which the autopilot trimmed the airplane right to a stall upset situation by masking heavy control forces. If the autopilot disengages while holding a large roll command to compensate for an asymmetric icing condition (or other similar problem causing roll), an immediate large rolling moment ensues for which the pilot may not be prepared, resulting in a roll upset. Pilots have been surprised when the autopilot automati- cally disconnected with the airplane on the brink of a stall. 8 Some autopilots are designed with control laws that enable them to continue to operate until they get to stick shaker. Alternatively, the autopilot may disconnect early because of excessive roll rates, roll angles, control surface deflection rates, or forces that are not normal. These autopilots are not mal- functioning; they are working as designed. High altitude weather can cause favorable condi- tions for upsets. Thunderstorms, clear air turbulence, and icing are examples of significant weather that pilots should take into consideration in flight planning. Careful review of forecasts, significant weather charts, turbulence plots are key elements in avoiding conditions that could lead to an upset. Once established in cruise flight, the prudent crew will update weather information for the destination and enroute. By comparing the updated information to the preflight briefing, the crew can more accu- rately determine if the forecast charts are accurate. Areas of expected turbulence should be carefully plotted and avoided if reports of severe turbulence are received. Trend monitoring of turbulence areas is also important. Trends of increasing turbulence should be noted and if possible avoided. Avoiding areas of potential turbulence will reduce the risk of an upset. Primary Flight Display Airspeed Indications Modern airplanes that are equipped with a primary flight display (PFD) provide information that will help maintain a safe airspeed margin between the low and high speed limits. Most of these airplanes have an indication of airspeed trending. This is im- portant because these displays do not indicate if ad- equate thrust is available at that altitude to maintain the current airspeed. Older airplanes have charts in the performance section that depict adequate speed ranges for a given altitude and weight. Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft Now that we are familiar with terms and aerodynam- ics of high altitude operations, certain techniques will now be discussed that will aid in eliminating high altitude upsets. Automation During High Altitude Flight During cruise at high altitude the autopilot will be engaged with the pitch in an altitude hold mode and the throttles in a speed mode. However, it is possible that due to changing conditions (increasing temperature, mountain wave, etc.) or poor planning, an airplane could be thrust limited and not be able to maintain the desired altitude and/or airspeed. Regardless, the airplane’s automatic control sys- tem will try to maintain this altitude by increasing thrust to its selected limit. When the thrust is at the maximum limit the pitch may continue to increase to maintain altitude and the airspeed then continues to decay. The only option then is to descend. The pilot’s action should be to pitch down and increase the airspeed while being in an automation mode that keeps the throttles at maximum thrust. If the autopilot is still engaged, select a lower altitude and use an appropriate mode to start the aircraft down. However, if the aircraft is not responding quickly enough you must take over manually. Pilots must assess the rate at which vertical speed and airspeed increase is occurring to make this determination. This does not imply that aggressive control inputs are necessary. The autopilot can then be reengaged once the airplane is in a stable descent and the commanded speed has been reestablished. Do not attempt to override the autopilot, it is always bet- ter to disconnect it before making manual control inputs. Due to RVSM considerations and large altitude losses, crews should consider turning off course during descents and monitoring TCAS to reduce the potential for collisions. Crews should also inform ATC of their altitude deviations. The consequences of using Vertical Speed (VS) at high altitude must be clearly understood. Most autoflight systems have the same logic for prioritiz- ing flight path parameters. The fundamental aspect of energy management is to manage speed by either elevator or with thrust. When using the VS mode of the Auto Flight System (AFS), airplane speed is normally controlled by thrust. If a too high vertical descent rate is selected the autothrottle will reduce thrust to idle and the airspeed will start to increase above the commanded airspeed. The reverse situ- ation can occur with considerable risk if an exces- sive climb rate is selected. In that case, if the thrust available is less than the thrust required for that selected vertical speed rate the commanded speed will not be able to be held and a speed decay will result. On some airplanes, improper use of VS can result in speed loss and eventually a stall. Pilots must understand the limits of their airplanes when selecting vertical modes. As a general guide- line, VS should not be used for climbing at high altitudes. Reduced thrust available at high altitudes 9 Supplement #1 means that speed should be controlled through pitch and not with thrust. VS can be used for descent; however, selecting excessive vertical speeds can result in airspeed increases into an overspeed con- dition. Using a mode that normally reduces thrust, when the need arises to descend immediately, may not be appropriate for a low speed situation. Either disconnect autothrottles, or use a mode that keeps the throttles at maximum available thrust in these situations. Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets The flightcrew may be startled by unexpected low airspeed stall warnings, dynamic buffeting and large changes in airplane attitude (design depen- dent) especially when the airplane is on autopilot. While flightcrews receive training on systems such as stick shakers to alert the pilots of impend- ing stall, normally they do not receive training in actual full stall recovery, let alone stall recovery at high altitudes. Hence, flight crews are inclined to respond to high altitude stalls like they have been trained to respond to stall warnings, but the procedures for the latter are neither effective nor proper for stall recovery. Furthermore, unlike the conditions for which the flightcrew is trained to respond to stall warnings at lower altitudes, at the higher altitudes the available thrust is insufficient, alone, to recover from a stall. The only effective response is to reduce the angle of attack and trade altitude for airspeed. Pilots have also reported that low airspeed buffet was mistaken for high speed buffet which prompts an incorrect response to reduce airspeed when approaching a low airspeed stall. As in any emergency situation, if the airplane is designed with effective alerting (actual and/or artificial) and the flightcrew is adequately trained to recognize the indicators of the stall, these will lead to appropriate flight crew recovery actions as discussed in the next paragraph. Equally important is that crews be familiar with stall warning and recognition devices, such as stick pushers, in order to understand their operation. Once the pilot recognizes the airplane is in a full aerodynamic stall, immediate corrective actions and decisions required for airplane recovery are sometimes delayed by the flightcrew. Some of the reasons for the delay include 1) lack of situational awareness and crew confusion, 2) anxiety associated with altitude violations and maintaining separation from other air traffic, 3) previous training emphasiz- ing prevention of altitude loss of only a few hundred feet even in the case of an impending high altitude stall, 4) inadequate experience with high altitude manual flight control, and 5) concern for passenger and crew safety. While the magnitude of required flight control input will vary by airplane design for recovery, flightcrews should be trained to expect a longer recovery time and greater altitude loss, often thousands of feet, while the airplane accelerates to gain airspeed following high altitude stall Also, since there is no detailed checklist or procedure telling the pilot when to start the stall recovery and how much back pressure should be used for return to level flight after stall recovery, these techniques need to be adequately trained. For example during stall recovery, pilots gauge how assertively they can pull back by using stick shaker activation to indicate when to reduce back pressure. Other pilots may use angle of attack limit indications on the attitude indicator (if equipped) to aid in the stall recovery. Pilots should also be aware that an aggressive stall recovery and subsequent altitude recapture can result in a secondary stall during stall recovery as the pilot discovers the correct level of control inputs required to recover the airplane. On the other side there is the concern of accelerating into high speed buffet during the recovery if the airplane is allowed to accelerate too much. Additional Considerations Multi-Engine Flame Out At high altitudes, as a result of very low airspeed, stall conditions, or other occurrences an all engine flameout may occur. This is easily detected in cruise but may be more difficult to detect during a descent. The all engine flameout demands prompt action regardless of altitude and airspeed. After recognition, immediate accomplishment of the re- call items and/or checklist associated with the loss of all engines is necessary to quickly establish the appropriate airspeed (requires a manual pitch down) and to attempt a windmill relight. It should be noted that loss of thrust at higher altitudes (above 30,000 feet) may require driftdown to a lower altitude to improve windmill starting capability. Additionally, even though the inflight start envelope is provided to identify the region where windmill starts can occur, it is often demonstrated during certification this envelope does not define the only areas where a windmill start may be successful. Regardless of the conditions and status of the airplane, strict adherence to the checklist is essential to maximize 10 the probability of a successful relight. Core Lock Core lock is a phenomenon that could, in theory, occur in any turbine engine after an abnormal ther- mal event (e.g. a sudden flameout at low airspeed) where the internal friction exceeds the external aerodynamic driving forces and the “core” of the engine stops. When this occurs, differential contrac- tion of the cooler outside case clamps down on the hotter internal components (seals, blade tips etc.) preventing rotation or “locking the core.” This seizure may be severe enough to exceed the driving force available by increasing airspeed or from the starter. If differential cooling locks the core, only time will allow the temperature difference to equal- ize, reduce the contact friction caused by differential contraction and allow free rotation. After all engine flameouts, the first critical item is to obtain safe descent speed. Then flight crews need to determine engine status. If any of the engine spools indicate zero RPM then a situation of core lock may exist or mechanical engine damage could have occurred. If this case applies to all engines, crews must obtain best L/D airspeed instead of ac- celerating to windmill speed, to obtain an optimum glide ratio. Crews then should consider their forced landing options. In the event the seized spool(s) begin to rotate a relight will be contemplated and windmill airspeed may be necessary. Rollback Turbine engine rollback is an uncommon anomaly consisting of an uncommanded loss of thrust (de- crease in EPR or N1), which is sometimes accom- panied by an increase in EGT. Rollback can be caused by a combination of many events including moisture, icing, fuel control issues, high angle of attack disrupted airflow, and mechanical failure and usually results in flameout or core lockup. Modern airplanes alleviate most rollback issues with auto- relight. Additionally, updated progressive mainte- nance programs identify potential problems and help to decrease rollback events. It is conceivable that pilots would recognize the results of rollback rather than the rollback event itself depending on workload and flight experience. If airspeed stagna- tion occurs, checking of appropriate thrust levels is important as well as increasing airspeed in the case where an engine has rolled back. High Altitude Loft Scenario The following example loft scenario is recom- mended by industry as a way of familiarizing crews with high altitude slowdowns and approach to stall. Crews should always recover at the first indication of an impending stall. Operators may want to modify this scenario for the specific airplane models flown. .11 Supplement #1 High Altitude Stall Warning Lesson: Lesson Type: Minimum Device: High Altitude Stall Warning Train to Proficiency Full Flight Simulator Performance Package: Pre-Brief Time: Preparation Time: Sim Time Preparations Time: De-Brief Time: TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD Introduction: The purpose of this LOFT training aid is to assist operators of high altitude jet airplanes. The high altitude slowdown to an approach to stall represents a threat that has resulted in accidents and incidents when mismanaged. This simulator training is to assist crews in managing this threat. The exercise is not intended to train an actual jet upset or full stall, it only has the airplane reach the indications of an approach to stall before a recovery is initiated. Operators should consider a number of factors to determine how realistic their simulator will respond to this training scenario. Operators should determine the optimum manner to set up this scenario to achieve the goals of the training. Goals of Training: Reinforce understanding of applicable high altitude characteristics 1. Assess how to determine cruise altitude capability 2. Reinforce acceptable climb techniques and acknowledge the risks associ- 3. ated with various climb scenarios and in particular vertical speed Recognize cues of an approach to stall and indications observable prior to 4. that point Discuss automation factors such as mode protections, hazards of split 5. automation (where either autopilot or autothrottle is disconnected) and inappropriate modes Address intuitive and incorrect reactions to stall warning indications 6. Develop procedures that are widely accepted to recover from impending 7. high altitude stall conditions with and without auto-flight systems Introductory Notes: The crew begins this lesson in cruise flight with an airplane at an altitude of FL250 or above in a near maximum altitude situation. The airplane weight should be at or near the maximum for that altitude based upon company or manufacturer’s procedures. The crew should discuss performance capability and reference applicable resources to determine what the maximum altitude is for the weight and environmental conditions. These references could include cruise charts, FMS optimum and FMS maximum altitudes with various mode protections (lateral and vertical) available. Buffet margins should be referenced and discussed based on the altitude. Alternative climbing modes and their as- sociated hazards should be understood. Common errors include complacency with climb and cruise procedures as well as a lack of knowledge with cruise charts. .12 Setup and Limitations: The simulator will then be either positioned or flown inappropriately to a situation where with an increase in ISA temperature will cause the airplane to be behind the power curve due to changing ambient conditions. The early addition of maximum available thrust should be discussed as a necessity to prevent this situation from occurring. However, in this situation maximum thrust is not enough to keep from slowing down while maintaining altitude. Certain airplane features, either with automation or without, may prevent an approach to stall from occurring. However, indications of such an impending situation should be discussed. These include airspeed trends, symbology/warning changes, low speed indications, trim changes, etc. Auto thrust or autopilot may have to be discon- nected to provide the approach to stall indications, but the goal should be to keep those modes in operation if possible to simulate a real scenario. Instructors should discuss the system degradation that results in this situation and the associated hazards. If unable to produce desired effect, reducing thrust may be necessary. Recognition and Recovery Brief interactive discussions of impending stall warning recovery methods followed by an actual stall warning recovery. Instructors should ensure the crews recover at the first indication of an approach to stall (mode reversions, aural; shaker, pusher warnings, buffet, etc). Do not allow the airplane to stall or the situation to progress to an upset situation because simulator realism may be compromised in this condition. Emphasis should be placed that the recovery requires maximum thrust and the reduction of pitch to lower the angle of attack and allowing the airplane to accelerate. At these altitudes and weight/temperature combinations, a descent will be required. If the autoflight sys- tems are used, appropriate modes should be used that meet the objectives of maximum thrust and a smooth decrease in pitch and a descent to an appropriate altitude that allows acceleration to normal and sustainable cruise speed. If manual flight is used, smooth control inputs avoiding abrupt control actions and maximum thrust are necessary. Pilots should be aware that with the increased true airspeed larger changes will occur for the same amount of pitch change as used at lower altitudes. Common errors include incor- rect recovery technique. Repeat scenario as necessary time permitting. .13 Supplement #1 The crew begins this lesson in cruise flight with an airplane at an altitude of FL250 or above. The airplane weight should be at or near the maximum for that altitude based upon company or manufac- turer’s procedures. Ensure crew references applicable cruise charts to determine what the maximum altitude is for the weight and environmental conditions. IOS: Instructor operating system or simulator control panel IOS»POSITION SET»FL 250 or ABOVE 1. IOS»AIRPLANE SET» 2. Gross weight: MAX appropriate IOS»ENVIRONMENT SET» 3. Weather: As desired DAY or NIGHT 29.92 or STANDARD Winds: As desired OAT»ISA or as initially required for scenario Element Information / check for Cruise Flight Ask crew if they can take the next higher flight level (take note of VNAV max • altitude) Review the use of vertical speed/ other climb modes in climbs and what are the • caveats Ensure crew understands how to determine MAX cruise altitude from Flight • Management System (if applicable) as well as supporting documents or manuals (e.g. Performance Manual, QRH, FCOM, etc.) Ensure crew understands what their buffet margin is for the current altitude and • weight combination. Review different scenarios leading to high altitude stalls and upset conditions. For • each scenario, review recovery procedures. Set or maneuver simulator to situation that is behind the power curve such that a • slowdown will occur regardless of thrust setting, with increased ISA IOS» Take a “snap shot” or save the current phase and position of flight if available to permit repetition of conditions and training IOS»Increase OAT as appropriate to simulate flight into warmer conditions Airspeed Decay Ask crew to disengage auto thrust (only if applicable/required). • Instructor may have remove power from certain aircraft specific systems (e.g. • flight computers) to permit aircraft to encounter a stall warning. Autopilot use may be lost. Instructor may have to set thrust that produces, along with temperature increase, • a slow loss in airspeed. Explain to crew how the aircraft reacts with the Autopilot on and its attempt to • maintain altitude. Explain to crew how the aircraft reacts with the Autopilot on and its attempt to • maintain altitude. Point out airspeed trend and instrument indications (low speed indications/sym- • bology if applicable) Explain what the aircraft specific threats that will be encountered with various • automation situations (split automation, LNAV vs. heading select modes, etc.) .14 Stall Warning Explain to crew what the stall warning system uses to set off warning and in what • progression the alerts will take place (visual, aural, shaker, pusher, buffet, etc.). Make sure crew understands that recovery will begin at first level of warning. • Recovery (Autoflight) Crew should command a desirable (down) vertical speed into the auto-flight sys- • tem. E.g. (-1000ft/min) Speed should be crew selected to avoid any thrust reduction by auto-flight sys- • tem Ensure thrust DOES NOT reduce to idle or below desired setting • Monitor TCAS and SCAN for traffic conflicts • Notify ATC • Crew should determine appropriate new cruising altitude (a descent of at least • 1000 feet is recommended to achieve adequate acceleration). Recovery (Manual) Crew should disengage auto-flight systems (if applicable) • Pitch aircraft down smoothly to establish descent, AVOID ABRUPT CONTROL • INPUTS, Pilots should be aware that with the increased true airspeed larger changes will occur for the same amount of pitch change as used at lower altitudes Set thrust to MAX (MAX appropriate to aircraft) • Accelerate to appropriate airspeed • Monitor TCAS and SCAN for traffic conflicts • Notify ATC • Crew should determine appropriate new cruising altitude • Industry Solutions for Larg e Sw e p t - W i n g T ur b o f an A i r p l a n e s T y p i c a l l y S e a t i n g M o r e Than 100 Passengers Training Aid Revision 2 ABX Air, Inc. A.M. Carter Associates (Institute for Simulation & Training) Air Transport Association Airbus Air Line Pilots Association AirTran Airways Alaska Airlines, Inc. All Nippon Airways Co., Ltd. Allied Pilots Association Aloha Airlines, Inc. American Airlines, Inc. American Trans Air, Inc. Ansett Australia Bombardier Aerospace Training Center (Regional Jet Training Center) British Airways Calspan Corporation Cathay Pacific Airways Limited Cayman Airways, Ltd. Civil Aviation House Continental Airlines, Inc. Delta Air Lines, Inc. Deutsche Lufthansa AG EVA Airways Corporation Federal Aviation Administration FlightSafety International Flight Safety Foundation Hawaiin Airlines International Air Transport Association Japan Airlines Co., Ltd. Lufthansa German Airlines Midwest Express Airlines, Inc. National Transportation Safety Board Northwest Airlines, Inc. Qantas Airways, Ltd. SAS Flight Academy Southwest Airlines The Boeing Company Trans World Airlines, Inc. United Air Lines, Inc. Upset Doamain Training Institute US Airways, Inc. Veridian Rev 2_November 2008 .i Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid Table of Contents Section Page Reference Units of Measurement .....................................................................................................................v Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................v Glossary .........................................................................................................................................vii 1 Overview for Management ..........................................................................................................1.1 1.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................1.1 1.1 General Goal and Objectives ..................................................................................................1.2 1.2 Documentation Overview .......................................................................................................1.2 1.3 Industry Participants................................................................................................................1.2 1.4 Resource Utilization ................................................................................................................1.3 1.5 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................1.3 2.0 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................2.1 2.1 Objectives ..............................................................................................................................2.1 2.2 Definition of Airplane Upset .................................................................................................2.1 2.3 The Situation .........................................................................................................................2.2 2.4 Causes of Airplane Upsets .....................................................................................................2.2 2.4.1 Environmentally InducedAirplane Upsets ..........................................................................2.3 2.4.1.1 Turbulence ........................................................................................................................2.3 2.4.1.1.1 Clear Air Turbulence ......................................................................................................2.4 2.4.1.1.2 Mountain Wave ..............................................................................................................2.4 2.4.1.1.3 Windshear ......................................................................................................................2.4 2.4.1.1.4 Thunderstorms ...............................................................................................................2.4 2.4.1.1.5 Microbursts ....................................................................................................................2.5 2.4.1.2 Wake Turbulence ..............................................................................................................2.6 2.4.1.3 Airplane Icing ...................................................................................................................2.8 2.4.2 Systems-Anomalies-Induced Airplane Upsets ....................................................................2.8 2.4.2.1 Flight Instruments .............................................................................................................2.9 2.4.2.2 Autoflight Systems............................................................................................................2.9 2.4.2.3 Flight Control and Other Anomalies.................................................................................2.9 2.4.3 Pilot-Induced Airplane Upsets ...........................................................................................2.10 2.4.3.1 Instrument Cross-Check .................................................................................................2.10 2.4.3.2 Adjusting Attitude and Power .........................................................................................2.10 2.4.3.3 nattention ........................................................................................................................2.10 2.4.3.4 Distraction From PrimaryCockpit Duties .......................................................................2.11 2.4.3.5 Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation ....................................................................................2.11 2.4.3.6 Pilot Incapacitation .........................................................................................................2.11 2.4.3.7 Improper Use of Airplane Automation ...........................................................................2.11 2.4.3.8 Pilot Techniques—PIO Avoidance/Recovery .................................................................2.12 2.4.4 Combination of Causes......................................................................................................2.12 2.5 Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals for Pilots ...................................................................2.12 2.5.1 Flight Dynamics ................................................................................................................2.13 2.5.2 Energy States .....................................................................................................................2.13 2.5.3 Load Factor ........................................................................................................................2.14 2.5.4 Aerodynamic Flight Envelope ...........................................................................................2.17 SECTION 1 .ii 2.5.5 Aerodynamics ....................................................................................................................2.18 2.5.5.1 Angle of Attack and Stall ................................................................................................2.18 2.5.5.2 Camber ............................................................................................................................2.21 2.5.5.3 Control Surface Fundamentals .......................................................................................2.22 2.5.5.3.1 Spoiler-Type Devices ...................................................................................................2.22 2.5.5.3.2 Trim ..............................................................................................................................2.23 2.5.5.4 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations ....................................................2.24 2.5.5.4.1 Angle of Sideslip..........................................................................................................2.24 2.5.5.4.2 Wing Dihedral Effects..................................................................................................2.25 2.5.5.4.3 Pilot-Commanded Sideslip ..........................................................................................2.26 2.5.5.4.4 Crossover Speed ........................................................................................................2.26 2.5.5.5 Stability ...........................................................................................................................2.27 2.5.5.6 Maneuvering in Pitch ......................................................................................................2.27 2.5.5.7 Mechanics of Turning Flight ..........................................................................................2.29 2.5.5.8 Lateral Maneuvering .......................................................................................................2.30 2.5.5.9 Directional Maneuvering ................................................................................................2.31 2.5.5.10 Flight at Extremely Low Airspeeds .............................................................................2.34 2.5.5.11 High-Altitude Characteristics ......................................................................................2.34 2.5.5.11.1 Regulatory Issues.......................................................................................................2.36 2.5.5.11.2 Aerodynamic Principles of High Altitude Operations...............................................2.36 2.5.5.11.2.1 L/D Max..................................................................................................................2.36 2.5.5.11.2.2 Crossover Altitude .................................................................................................2.37 2.5.5.11.2.3 Optimum Altitude ...................................................................................................2.37 2.5.5.11.2.4 Optimum Climb Speed Deviations .........................................................................2.37 2.5.5.11.2.5 Thrust Limited Condition and Recovery ................................................................2.37 2.5.5.11.2.6 Maximum Altitude ..................................................................................................2.37 2.5.5.11.2.7 Maneuvering Stability ............................................................................................2.37 2.5.5.11.3 Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics ............................................2.39 2.5.5.11.4 Mach Tuck and Mach Buffet .....................................................................................2.39 2.5.5.11.5 Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude ...........................................................................2.39 2.5.5.11.6 Stalls ..........................................................................................................................2.40 2.5.5.11.7 Icing ..........................................................................................................................2.40 2.5.5.11.8 Primary Flight Display Airspeed Indications ............................................................2.41 2.5.5.11.9 Automation During High Altitude Flight ..................................................................2.41 2.5.5.11.10 Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets .................................................................2.42 2.5.5.11.11 Additional Considerations ........................................................................................2.42 2.5.5.11.11.1 Multi-Engine Flame Out .........................................................................................2.42 2.5.5.11.11.2 Core Lock ...............................................................................................................2.43 2.5.5.11.11.3 Rollback ..................................................................................................................2.43 2.5.5.12 Flight at Extremely High Speeds ....................................................................................2.43 2.5.5.13 Defensive, Aggressive Maneuvers .................................................................................2.44 2.6 Recovery From Airplane Upsets .........................................................................................2.44 2.6.1 Situation Awareness of anAirplane Upset .........................................................................2.44 2.6.2 Miscellaneous Issues Associated With Upset Recovery....................................................2.45 2.6.2.1 Startle Factor ...................................................................................................................2.45 2.6.2.2 Negative G Force ............................................................................................................2.45 2.6.2.3 Use of Full Control Inputs ..............................................................................................2.46 2.6.2.4 Counter-Intuitive Factors ................................................................................................2.46 2.6.2.5 Previous Training inNonsimilar Airplanes .....................................................................2.46 2.6.2.6 Potential Effects on Engines ...........................................................................................2.46 2.6.2.7 Post Upset Conditions.....................................................................................................2.46 Section Page .iii 2.6.3 Airplane Upset RecoveryTechniques ................................................................................2.46 2.6.3.1 Stall ................................................................................................................................2.47 2.6.3.2 Nose-High, Wings-Level Recovery Techniques .............................................................2.47 2.6.3.3 Nose-Low, Wings-LevelRecovery Techniques...............................................................2.48 2.6.3.4 High-Bank-AngleRecovery Techniques .........................................................................2.49 2.6.3.5 Consolidated Summary of Airplane Recovery Techniques ............................................2.49 3.0 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................3.1 3.1 Academic Training Program..................................................................................................3.1 3.1.1 Training Objectives .............................................................................................................3.2 3.1.2 Academic Training Program Modules.................................................................................3.2 3.1.3 Academic Training Syllabus................................................................................................3.2 3.1.4 Additional Academic Training Resources ...........................................................................3.3 3.2 Simulator Training Program ..................................................................................................3.3 3.2.1 Simulator Limitations ..........................................................................................................3.3 3.2.2 Training Objectives .............................................................................................................3.4 3.2.3 Simulator Training Syllabus ................................................................................................3.4 3.2.4 Pilot Simulator Briefing .......................................................................................................3.4 3.2.5 Simulator Training ...............................................................................................................3.5 Airplane Upset Recovery Training Syllabus........................................................................................3.7 Simulator Training Exercises .............................................................................................................3.11 Exercise 1. Nose-High Characteristics (Initial Training) ...................................................................3.13 Exercise 1. Iteration One—Use of Nosedown Elevator ....................................................................3.13 Exercise 1. Iteration Two—Use of Bank Angle .................................................................................3.14 Exercise 1. Iteration Three—Thrust Reduction (Underwing-Mounted Engines) ..............................3.15 Exercise 1. Practice—Practice Using All Techniques .......................................................................3.15 Exercise 2. Nose-Low Characteristics (Initial Training) ...................................................................3.17 Exercise 2. Iteration One—Nose-Low Recovery ..............................................................................3.17 Exercise 2. Iteration Two—Accelerated Stall Demonstration ...........................................................3.18 Exercise 2. Iteration Three—High Bank Angle/Inverted Flight ........................................................3.19 Exercise 3. Optional Practice Exercise ..............................................................................................3.21 Exercise 3. Instructions for the Simulator Instructor .........................................................................3.21 Exercise 4: High Altitude Stall Warning ............................................................................................3.23 Recurrent Training Exercises .............................................................................................................3.26 Appendix 3-A, Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery Questions .......................................App. 3-A.1 Appendix 3-B, Airplane Upset Recovery Briefing .................................................................App. 3-B.1 Appendix 3-C, Video Script: Airplane Upset Recovery .........................................................App. 3-C.1 Appendix 3-D, Flight Simulator Information .........................................................................App. 3-D.1 Appendix 3-E, High Altitude Operations Presentation ............................................................ App. 3-E.i 4 References for Additional Information ..................................................................................4.1 Index ............................................................................................................................................index.1 Section Page SECTION 1 .iv .v Units of Measurement ° degree (temperature) deg degree (angle) deg/s degrees per second ft feet ft/min feet per minute ft/s feet per second hPa hectoPascal hr hour in inch inHg inches of mercury kg kilogram kn knot m meter mbar millibar mi mile min minute nm nautical mile sec second Acronyms ADI Attitude Direction Indicator AFM Approved Flight Manual AGL above ground level AOA angle of attack ASRS Aviation Safety Reporting System ATC air traffic control CAT clear air turbulence CFIT Controlled Flight Into Terrain CG center of gravity ECAMS Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring System EICAS Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System FAA Federal Aviation Administration GA general duration ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ILS Instrument Landing System IMC instrument meteorological conditions MAC mean aerodynamic chord MSL mean sea level NASA National Aeronautics Space Administration NTSB National Transportation Safety Board PF pilot flying PFD Primary Flight Display PIO pilot-induced oscillation PNF pilot not flying RTO rejected takeoff VMC visual meteorological conditions VSI Vertical Speed Indicator REFERENCE SECTION 1 .vi REFERENCE .vii Airplane Upset Recovery Glossary Certain definitions are needed to explain the con- cepts discussed in this training aid. Some of the definitions are from regulatory documents or other references, and some are defined in the aid. Airplane Upset An airplane in flight unintentionally exceeding the parameters normally experienced in line operations or training: Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose up. • Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg, nose down. • Bank angle greater than 45 deg. • Within the above parameters, but flying at air- • speeds inappropriate for the conditions. Altitude (USA) The height of a level, point, or object measured in feet above ground level (AGL) or from mean sea level (MSL). MSL altitude — Altitude expressed in feet a. measured from mean sea level. AGL altitude — Altitude expressed in feet b. measured above ground level. Indicated altitude— The altitude as shown c. by an altimeter. On a pressure or barometric altimeter, it is altitude as shown uncorrected for instrument error and uncompensated for variation from standard atmospheric conditions. Altitude (ICAO) The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an ob- ject considered as a point, measured from mean sea level. Angle of Attack (AOA) Angle of attack is the angle between the oncoming air or relative wind, and some reference line on the airplane or wing. Autoflight Systems The autopilot, autothrottle, and all related systems that perform flight management and guidance. Camber The amount of curvature evident in an airfoil shape. Ceiling The heights above the Earth’s surface of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena that are reported as “broken,” “overcast,” or “obscuration,” and not classified as “thin” or “partial.” Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) High-level turbulence (normally above 15,000 ft above sea level) not associated with cumuliform cloudiness, including thunderstorms. Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) An event where a mechanically normally function- ing airplane is inadvertently flown into the ground, water, or an obstacle. Dihedral The positive angle formed between the lateral axis of an airplane and a line that passes through the center of the wing. Energy The capacity to do work. Energy State How much of each kind of energy (kinetic, poten- tial, or chemical) the airplane has available at any given time. Flight Crew or Flight Crew Member A pilot, first officer, flight engineer, or flight navigator assigned to duty in an airplane during flight time. Flight Level A level of constant atmospheric pressure related to a reference datum of 29.92 inches of mercury. This is stated in three digits that represent hundreds of feet. For example, flight level 250 represents a barometric altimeter indication of 25,000 ft; flight level 255, an indication of 25,500 ft. Flight Management Systems A computer system that uses a large database to allow routes to be preprogrammed and fed into the system by means of a data loader. The system is constantly updated with respect to position ac- REFERENCE SECTION 1 .viii curacy by reference to conventional navigation aids. The sophisticated program and its associated database ensures that the most appropriate aids are automatically selected during the information update cycle. Flight Path The actual direction and velocity an airplane follows. Flight Path Angle The angle between the flight path vector and the horizon. Flight Recorder A general term applied to any instrument or device that records information about the performance of an airplane in flight or about conditions encoun- tered in flight. Fly-by-Wire Airplanes Airplanes that have electronic flight control systems Instrument Landing System A precision instrument approach system that nor- mally consists of the following electronic compo- nents and visual aids: Localizer. a. Glideslope. b. Outer marker. c. Middle marker. d. Approach lights. e. Instrument Landing System Categories ILS Category I— An ILS approach procedure 1. that provides for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 200 ft and with run- way visual range of not less than 1800 ft. ILS Category II— An ILS approach procedure 2. that provides for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 100 ft and with run- way visual range of not less than 1200 ft. ILS Category III— 3. IIIA. An ILS approach procedure that provides for approach without a decision height minimum and with runway visual range of not less than 700 ft. IIIB. An ILS approach procedure that provides for approach without a decision height minimum and with runway visual range of not less than 150 ft. IIIC. An ILS approach procedure that provides for approach without a decision height minimum and without runway visual range minimum. Instrument Meteorological Conditions Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling less than the minimums specified for visual meteorological conditions. International Civil Aviation Organization A specialized agency of the United Nations whose objectives are to develop the principles and tech- niques of international air navigation and foster planning and development of international civil air transport. Load Factor A measure of the acceleration being experienced by the airplane. Maneuver A controlled variation of the flight path. Mean Sea Level (MSL) Altitude Altitude expressed in feet measured from mean sea level. Mountain Wave Severe turbulence advancing up one side of a mountain and down the other. Newton’s First Law An object at rest will tend to stay at rest, and an object in motion will tend to stay in motion in a straight line, unless acted on by an external force. Newton’s Second Law An object in motion will continue in a straight line unless acted on by an external force. Force = mass x acceleration REFERENCE .ix Operators The people who are involved in all operations functions required for the flight of commercial airplanes. Pitch Movement about the lateral axis. Pitch Attitude The angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the horizon. Roll Motion about the longitudinal axis. Sideslip Angle The angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the relative wind as seen in a plan view. Stability Positive static stability is the initial tendency to re- turn to an undisturbed state after a disturbance. Stall An airplane is stalled when the angle of attack is beyond the stalling angle. A stall is characterized by any of, or a combination of, the following: Buffeting, which could be heavy at times. a. A lack of pitch authority. b. A lack of roll control. c. Inability to arrest descent rate. d. Trim That condition in which the forces on the airplane are stabilized and the moments about the center of gravity all add up to zero. Turbulence Turbulent atmosphere is characterized by a large variation in an air current over a short distance. Visual Meteorological Conditions Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling equal to or better than specified minimums. VMCA The minimum flight speed at which the airplane is controllable with a maximum of 5-deg bank when the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining engine at takeoff thrust. Wake Turbulence The condition in which a pair of counter-rotating vortices is shed from an airplane wing, thus causing turbulence in the airplane’s wake. Windshear Wind variations at low altitude Yaw Motion about the vertical axis REFERENCE SECTION 1 .x REFERENCE Section 1 SECTION 1 1.i 1.0 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................1.1 1.1 General Goal and Objectives .................................................................................................1.2 1.2 Documentation Overview ......................................................................................................1.2 1.3 Industry Participants ..............................................................................................................1.2 1.4 Resource Utilization ..............................................................................................................1.3 1.5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................1.3 1 Overview for Management Table of Contents Section Page SECTION 1 SECTION 1 SECTION 1 1.1 1.0 Introduction Airplane manufacturers, airlines, pilot associations, flight training organizations, and government and regulatory agencies have developed this training resource. The training package consists of this document and a supporting video. It is dedicated to reducing the number of accidents caused by the loss of control of large, swept-wing airplanes that results from airplane upset. Airplane upset is defined as an airplane in flight unintentionally exceeding the parameters normally experienced in line opera- tions or training. While specific values may vary among airplane models, the following unintentional conditions generally describe an airplane upset: Pitch attitude greater than 25 deg, nose up. • Pitch attitude greater than 10 deg, nose down. • Bank angle greater than 45 deg. • Within the above parameters, but flying at air- • speeds inappropriate for the conditions. Accidents that result from loss of airplane control have been and continue to be a major contributor to fatalities in the worldwide commercial aviation industry. Industry statistical analysis indicates there were 22 in-flight, loss-of-control accidents between 1998 and 2007.1 These accidents resulted in more than 2051 fatalities. Data also suggests there are an even larger number of “incidents” where air- planes were upset. There were many reasons for the control problems; problems have been attrib- uted to environment, equipment, and pilots. These data suggest that pilots need training to cope with airplane upsets. Research by some operators has indicated that most airline pilots rarely experience airplane upsets during their line flying careers. It has also indicated that many pilots have never been trained in maximum-performance airplane maneuvers, such as aerobatic maneuvers, and those pilots who have been exposed to aerobatics lose their skills over time. Several operators have reacted to this situation by de- veloping and implementing pilot training programs that include academic and simulator training. Some government regulatory agencies are encouraging airlines to provide education and training to better 1 Overview for Management prepare pilots to recover airplanes that have been upset. Airplane manufacturers have responded to this by leading an industry team formed to develop this Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid. The team approach to the development of training has several advantages. Most issues are identified and discussed, and a consensus is then achieved that is acceptable to the aviation industry. This process reduces the time for development and implemen- tation of training. Synergy is gained during this process that results in an improved product. Finally, a training program is readily available to any opera- tor that may not have been able to produce its own program. Established programs may be improved and modified. This training aid is intended to be a comprehen- sive training package that airlines can present to their flight crews in a combination of classroom and simulator programs. It is structured to be a baseline tool to incorporate into existing programs or to customize by the operator to meet its unique requirements. There will be additional costs associated with airplane upset recovery training; however, it is anticipated that the return on investment will be a reduction in airplane accidents. An operator will find the implementation of this training package to be principally a change in emphasis, not a replace- ment of existing syllabi. Some of the training may be conducted in conjunction with existing training requirements, which may reduce the additional costs. Except in unique instances where training devices may need upgrading to address significant preexisting limitations, there should be virtually no hardware costs associated with this upset recovery training. Airplane upsets happen for a variety of reasons. Some are more easily prevented than others. Improvement in airplane design and equipment reliability continues to be a goal of airplane manufacturers and others. The industry has seen improvements to the point that airplane upsets happen so infrequently that pilots are not always prepared or trained to respond correctly. Airplane 1. Source: “Statistical Summary of Commercial Jet Airplane Accidents, Worldwide Operations, 1998–2007,” Airplane Safety Engineering, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group (Seattle, Washington, USA: July 2008). SECTION 1 1.2 upsets that are caused by environmental factors are difficult to predict; therefore, training programs stress avoidance of such phenomena, but this is not always successful. The logical conclusion is that pilots should be trained to safely recover an airplane that has been upset. For this training to be implemented, it needs to be supported by the top management within all airplane operators. Many operators are now conducting Airplane Upset Re- covery Training. The unanimous consensus from operations and training managers indicates this training better prepares crews for these uninten- tional situations. 1.1 General Goal and Objectives The goal of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid is to increase the pilot’s ability to recognize and avoid situations that can lead to airplane upsets and improve the pilot’s ability to recover control of an airplane that has exceeded the normal flight regime. This can be accomplished by increasing awareness of potential upset situations and knowledge of flight dynamics and by the application of this knowledge during simulator training scenarios. Objectives to support this goal include the fol- lowing: Establishment of an industrywide consensus a. on a variety of effective training methods for pilots to recover from airplane upsets. Development of appropriate educational b. materials. Development of an example training program, c. providing a basis from which individual opera- tors may develop tailored programs. 1.2 Documentation Overview In addition to the Overview for Management, the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid package consists of the following: Section 2: “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset a. Recovery.” Section 3: “Example Airplane Upset Recovery b. Training Program.” Section 4: “References for Additional Infor- c. mation.” Video: Airplane Upset Recovery. d. Section 2. The “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery” briefly reviews the causes of airplane upsets; fundamental flight dynamics of flight for large, swept-wing airplanes; and the application of flight dynamic fundamentals for recovering an airplane that has been upset. The guide is a highly readable, concise treatment of pilot issues, written by pilots—for pilots. It is intended for self-study or classroom use. Section 3. The “Example Airplane Upset Recov- ery Training Program” is a stand-alone resource designed to serve the needs of a training depart- ment. An example academic training program and a simulator training program are both included. Academic training provides pilots with the founda- tion for avoiding airplane upsets that are within their control and also provides information about flight dynamics associated with airplane recovery. The flight simulator scenarios are designed to provide the opportunity for pilots to apply the knowledge gained in the academic program and improve their skills in recovery from airplane upset. Section 4. This section consists of references for additional reading on subjects associated with airplane upsets and recovery. Video Program. Airplane Upset Recovery is intended for use in an academic program in con- junction with the “Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery.” CD-ROM. Document and video. 1.3 Industry Participants The following organizations participated in the development of this training aid: ABX Air, Inc. A.M. Carter Associates (Institute for Simulation & Training) Air Transport Association Airbus Air Line Pilots Association AirTran Airways Alaska Airlines, Inc. All Nippon Airways Co., Ltd. Allied Pilots Association Aloha Airlines, Inc. American Airlines, Inc. American Trans Air, Inc. Ansett Australia Bombardier Aerospace Training Center (Regional Jet Training Center) British Airways SECTION 1 1.3 Calspan Corporation Cathay Pacific Airways Limited Cayman Airways, Ltd. Civil Aviation House Continental Airlines, Inc. Delta Air Lines, Inc. Deutsche Lufthansa AG EVA Airways Corporation Federal Aviation Administration FlightSafety International Flight Safety Foundation Hawaiin Airlines International Air Transport Association Japan Airlines Co., Ltd. Lufthansa German Airlines Midwest Express Airlines, Inc. National Transportation Safety Board Northwest Airlines, Inc. Qantas Airways, Ltd. SAS Flight Academy Southwest Airlines The Boeing Company Trans World Airlines, Inc. United Air Lines, Inc. Upset Doamain Training Institute US Airways, Inc. Veridian Many meetings were held, during which consensus was gained among the participants concerning the goal and objectives for the training aid. Several review cycles were conducted, in which comments and recommendations were considered for inclusion in the final material. 1.4 Resource Utilization This document has been designed to be of maximum utility, both in its current form and as a basis for an operator to design or modify an airplane upset program as it sees fit. Both academic and practical simulator training should be employed to achieve a well-balanced, effective training program. For some operators, the adoption of the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid into their existing training programs may not entail much change. For those operators that are in the process of creating a complete training pro- gram, the Airplane Upset Recovery Training Aid will readily provide the foundation of a thorough and efficient program. The allocation of training time within recurrent and transition programs will vary from operator to operator. 1.5 Conclusion This document and video are designed to assist operators in creating or updating airplane upset recovery training programs. While this training aid stresses the importance of avoiding airplane upsets, those upsets that are caused by the environment or airplane equipment failures can be difficult, if not impossible, for the pilot to avoid. Therefore, management is encouraged to take appropriate steps to ensure that an effective airplane upset re- covery training program is in place for pilots. The reduction of loss-of-control accidents is a targeted meaningful improvement in aviation safety. Results can be gained by training in this area. In competi- tion with other items demanding resources, such as security, safety should always be considered paramount to success. SECTION 1 1.4 Section 2 SECTION 2 2.i 2 Pilot Guide to Airplane Upset Recovery Table of Contents Section Page 2.0 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................2.1 2.1 Objectives ..............................................................................................................................2.1 2.2 Definition of Airplane Upset .................................................................................................2.1 2.3 The Situation .........................................................................................................................2.2 2.4 Causes of Airplane Upsets .....................................................................................................2.2 2.4.1 Environmentally InducedAirplane Upsets ........................................................................2.3 2.4.1.1 Turbulence ......................................................................................................................2.3 2.4.1.1.1 Clear Air Turbulence...................................................................................................2.4 2.4.1.1.2 Mountain Wave ...........................................................................................................2.4 2.4.1.1.3 Windshear ...................................................................................................................2.4 2.4.1.1.4 Thunderstorms ............................................................................................................2.4 2.4.1.1.5 Microbursts .................................................................................................................2.5 2.4.1.2 Wake Turbulence ............................................................................................................2.6 2.4.1.3 Airplane Icing .................................................................................................................2.8 2.4.2 Systems-Anomalies-Induced Airplane Upsets ..................................................................2.8 2.4.2.1 Flight Instruments ..........................................................................................................2.9 2.4.2.2 Autoflight Systems .........................................................................................................2.9 2.4.2.3 Flight Control and Other Anomalies ..............................................................................2.9 2.4.3 Pilot-Induced Airplane Upsets .........................................................................................2.10 2.4.3.1 Instrument Cross-Check ...............................................................................................2.10 2.4.3.2 Adjusting Attitude and Power ......................................................................................2.10 2.4.3.3 Inattention.....................................................................................................................2.10 2.4.3.4 Distraction From PrimaryCockpit Duties.....................................................................2.11 2.4.3.5 Vertigo or Spatial Disorientation ..................................................................................2.11 2.4.3.6 Pilot Incapacitation .......................................................................................................2.11 2.4.3.7 Improper Use of Airplane Automation .........................................................................2.11 2.4.3.8 Pilot Techniques—PIO Avoidance/Recovery...............................................................2.12 2.4.4 Combination of Causes....................................................................................................2.12 2.5 Swept-Wing Airplane Fundamentals for Pilots ...................................................................2.12 2.5.1 Flight Dynamics ..............................................................................................................2.13 2.5.2 Energy States ...................................................................................................................2.13 2.5.3 Load Factor ......................................................................................................................2.14 2.5.4 Aerodynamic Flight Envelope .........................................................................................2.17 2.5.5 Aerodynamics ..................................................................................................................2.18 2.5.5.1 Angle of Attack and Stall .............................................................................................2.18 2.5.5.2 Camber .........................................................................................................................2.21 2.5.5.3 Control Surface Fundamentals .....................................................................................2.22 2.5.5.3.1 Spoiler-Type Devices ................................................................................................2.22 2.5.5.3.2 Trim ..........................................................................................................................2.23 2.5.5.4 Lateral and Directional Aerodynamic Considerations .................................................2.24 2.5.5.4.1 Angle of Sideslip ......................................................................................................2.24 2.5.5.4.2 Wing Dihedral Effects ..............................................................................................2.25 2.5.5.4.3 Pilot-Commanded Sideslip .......................................................................................2.26 SECTION 1 SECTION 2 2.ii Section Page 2.5.5.4.4 Crossover Speed .......................................................................................................2.26 2.5.5.5 Stability ........................................................................................................................2.27 2.5.5.6 Maneuvering in Pitch ...................................................................................................2.27 2.5.5.7 Mechanics of Turning Flight ........................................................................................2.29 2.5.5.8 Lateral Maneuvering ....................................................................................................2.30 2.5.5.9 Directional Maneuvering......................................................................................