Pilot Safety and Warning Supplements - GACE Flying Club

essential that the pilot review the entire operating handbook to retain familiarity. He or she should maintain a working knowledge of the limitations of his or her airplane. When the pilot deliberately or inadvertently operates the airplane outside the limitations, he or she is violating Federal Aviation Regulations and may be subject to disciplinary actions. Cessna does not support modifications to Cessna airplanes, whether by Supplemental Type Certificate or otherwise, unless these certificates are approved by Cessna. Such modifications, although approved by the FAA, may void any and all Cessna warranties on the airplane since Cessna may not know the full effects on the overall airplane. Cessna does not and has not tested and approved all such modifications by other companies. Maintenance and operating procedures and performance data provided by Cessna may no longer be accurate for the modified airplane . Airplanes require maintenance on a regular basis. As a result, it is essential that the airplane be regularly inspected and repaired when parts are worn or damaged in order to maintain flight safety. Information for the proper maintenance of the airplane is found in the airplane Service/Maintenance Manual, Illustrated Parts Catalog, and in, company-issued Service Information 2 " Reissue - 1 June 1998 • PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS INTRODUCTION Letters or Service Bulletins, etc. Pilots should assure themselves that all recommendations for product changes or modifications called for by Service Bulletins, etc., are accomplished and that the airplane receives repetitive and required inspections. Much of the subject matter discussed in the following Supplements has been derived from various publications of the U.S. Government. Since these documents contain considerably more information and df;ltail than is contained here, it is highly recommended that the pilot also read them in order to gain an even greater understanding of the subjects related to flight safety. These publications include the following: AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (AIM). This Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) manual is designed to provide airmen with basic flight information and Air Traffic Control (ATC) procedures for use in the National Airspace System (NAS). It alSO contains items of interest to pilots concerning health and medical facts, factors affecting flight safety, q pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the Air Traffic Control System, and information on safety, accident and hazard reporting. This manual can be purchased at retail dealers, or on a subscription basis from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. NOTICES TO AIRMEN (Class II). This is a publication containing current Notices to Airmen (NOTAMS) which are considered essential to the safety of flight as well as supplemental data affecting the other operational publications listed here. It also includes current Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMS, which are regulatory in nature, issued to establish restrictions to flight or amend charts or published Instrument Approach Procedures. This publication is issued every 14 days and is available by subscription from the Superintendent of Documents. AIRPORT FACILITY DIRECTORY, ALASKA and PACIFIC CHART SUPPLEMENTS. These publications contain information on airports, communications, navigation aids, instrument landing systems, VOR receiver checks, preferred routes, FSSlWeather Service telephone numbers, Air Route Traffic' Control Center (ARTCC) frequencies, and various other pertinent special notices essential to air navigation. These publications are available by subscription from the National Ocean Service (NOS), NOAA N/ACC3 Distribution Division, Riverdale, Maryland 20737, telephone 1-800-638-8972 FAX (301) 436-6829. . FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS (FARs). The FAA publishes the FARs to make readily available to the aviation community the'regulatory requirements placed upon them. These regulations are sold as individual parts by the Superintendent of Documents. The more frequently amended parts are sold by subscription service with subscribers receiving changes automatically as they are issued. Less active parts are sold on a single-sale basis. Changes to single-sale parts will be sold separately as issued. Information concerning Reissue - 1 June 1998 3 INTRODUCTION PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS these changes will be furnished by the FAA through its Status of Federal Aviation Regulations, AC 00-4411. ADVISORY CIRCULARS (ACs). The FAA issues ACs to inform the aviation .~c, public of nonregulatory material of interest. Advisory Circulars are issued in a:"f,! numbered subject system corresponding to the subject areas of the Federal Aviation Regulations. AC 00-2.11, Advisory Circular Check~ist contains a listing , of ACs covering, a' wide range of subjects and how to order them, many of which are distributed free-of-charge. AC 00-2.11 is issued every four months and is available at no cost from: U.S. Department of Transportation, Distribution requirements Section, SVC 121.21, Washington, DC 20590. The checklist is also available via the internet at http://www.faa.gov/abc/ac-chklist/actoc.htm. Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS PHYSIOLOGICAL FATIGUE 1 PHYSIOLOGICAL Fatigue continues to be one of the most treacherous h~ards to flight safety. It generally slows reaction times and causes errors due tb' inattention, and it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. Fatigue is best described as either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). As a normal occurrence of everyday living, acute fatigue is the tiredness felt after long periods of physical and/or mental strain, including strenuous muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of sleep. In addition to these common causes, the pressures of business, financial worries, and unique family problems can be important contributing factors. Consequently, coordination and alertness, which are vital to safe pilot performance, can be reduced. Acute fatigue can be prevented by adequate rest and sleep, as well as regular exercise and proper nutrition. Chronic fatigue occurs when there is insufficient time for full recovery between periods of acute fatigue. Performance continues to degrade and judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue requires a prolonged period of rest. If a pilot is markedly fatigued prior to a given flight, he or she should not fly. To prevent cumulative fatigue effects during long flights, pilots should conscientiously make efforts to remain mentally active by making frequent visual and radio navigation position checks, estimates of time of arrival at the next check point, etc. . STRESS Stress from the pressures of everyday living can impair pilot performance, often in very subtle ways. Difficulties can occupy thought processes enough to markedly decrease alertness. Distractions can also interfere with judgment to the point that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into deteriorating weather conditions to keep on schedule. Stress and fatigue can be an extremely hazardous combination. It is virtually impossible to leave stress on the ground. Therefore, when more than usual difficulties are being experienced, a pilot should consider delaying flight until these difficulties are satisfactorily resolved. EMOTION Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument, death of a family member, separation or divorce, loss of job, or financial catastrophe can seriously impair a pilOt's ability to fly an airplane safely. The emotions of anger, depression, and anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness Reissue - 1 June 1998 1 PHYSIOLOGICAL PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS but may also lead to taking unnecessary risks. Any pilot who experiences an emotionally upsetting event should not fly until satisfactorily recovered from the event. ILLNESS A pilot should not fly with a known medical condition or a change of a known medical condition that would make the pilot unable to meet medical certificate standards. Even a minor illness suffered in day-to-day living can ,seriously degrade performance of many piloting skills vital to safe flight. An illness may produce a fever and other distracting symptoms that can impair judgment, memory, alertness, and the ability to make decisions. Even if the symptoms of an illness are under adequate control with a medication, the medication may adversely affect pilot performance, and invalidate his or her medical certificate. The safest approach is not to fly while suffering from any illness. If there is doubt about a particular illness, the pilot should contact an Aviation Medical Examiner for advice. MEDICATION f Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescribed and over-the- counter medications. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough suppressant preparations, have primary effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, and ability to make decisions. Other medications, such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion sickness, have side effects that may impair the body's critical functions. Any medications that depress the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer or antihistamine, can make a pilot more susceptible to hypoxia. FARs prohibit pilots from flying while using any medication that affects their faculties in any way contrary to safety. The safest advice is to not fly while taking medications, unless approved to do so by an Aviation Medical Examiner. The condition for which the drug is required may itself be very hazardous to flying, even when the symptoms are suppressed by the drug. A combination of medications may cause adverse effects that do not result from a single medication. ALCOHOL • Do not fly while under the influence of alcohol. Flying and alcohol are definitely • a lethal combination. FARs prohibit pilots from flying within 8 hours after consuming any alcoholic beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. A Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 1 PHYSIOLOGICAL pilot may still be under the influence 8 hours after drinking a moderate amount of alcohol. Therefore, an excellent practice is to allow at least 24 hours between "bottle and throttle," depending on the amount of alcoholic beverage consumed. Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills, with the alcohol consumed in these drinks being detectable in the breath and blood for at least three hours. Alcohol also renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia. In addition, the after effects of alcohol increase the level of fatigue significantly. There is simply no way of alleviating a hangover. Remember that the human body metabolizes alcohol at a fixed rate, and no amount of coffee or medications will alter this rate. Do not fly with a hangover, or a "masked hangover" (symptoms suppressed by aspirin or other medication). A pilot can be severely impaired for many hours by hangover. DRINKING THE RIGHT FLUIDS One of the main sources of pilot and passenger complaints stems from the relatively lowered humidity during air travel encountered at altitude particularly on extended flights. Even though an individual may not be physically active, body water is continuously expired from the lungs and through the skin. This physiological phenomenon is called insensible perspiration or insensible loss of water. The loss of water through the skin, lungs, and kidneys never ceases. Water loss is increased with exercise, fever, and in some disease conditions such as hyperthyroidism. Combatting the effects of insensible water loss during flight requires frequent water intake. Unless this is done, dehydration will occur and this causes interference with blood Circulation, tissue metabolism, and excretion of the kidneys. Water is vital for the normal chemical reaction of human tissue. It is also necessary for the regulation of body temperature and as an excretory medium. Beginning a flight in a rested, healthy condition is of prime importance. Proper water balance through frequent fluid intake relieves the adverse effects produced by insensible water loss in an atmosphere of lowered humidity. Typical dehydration conditions are: dryness of ,the tissues and resulting irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat as well as other conditions previously mentioned plus the associated fatigue relating to the state of acidosis (reduced alkalinity of the blood and the body tissues). A person reporting for a flight in a dehydrated state will more readily notice these symptoms until fluids are adequately replaced. Reissue - 1 June 1998 3 1 PHYSIOLOGICAL HYPERVENTILATION PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in the volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs, can occur subconsciously when a stressful situation is •. encountered in flight. As hyperventilation expels excessive carbon dioxide ' from the body, a pilot can experience symptoms of light headedness, suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities, and coolness -- and react to them with even greater hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result. Uncoordination, disorientation, painful muscle spasms, and finally, unconsciousness may ultimately occur. The symptoms of hyperventilation will subside within a few minutes if the rate and depth of breathing are consciously brought back under control. The restoration of normal carbon dioxide levels in the body can be hastened by controlled breathing in and out of a paper bag held over the nose and mouth. Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are similar. Moreover, hyperventilation and hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a pilot is using oxygen when symptoms are experienced, the oxygen system should be checked to assure that it has been functioning effectively before giving attention to rate and depth of breathing. EAR BLOCK As an airplane climbs and the cabin pressure decreases, trapped air in the middle ear expands and escapes through the eustachian tube to the nasal passages, thus equalizing with the pressure in the cabin. During descent, cabin pressure increases and some air must return to the middle ear through the eustachian tube to maintain equal pressure. However, this process does not always occur without effort. In most cases it can be accomplished by swallowing, yawning, tensing the muscles in the throat or, if these do not work, by the combination of closing the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and attempting to blow gently through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver). Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sore throat, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around the eustachian tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the difference in pressure between the middle ear and the airplane cabin can build up to a level that will hold the eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult, if not impossible. This situation is commonly referred to as an "ear block." An ear block produces severe pain and loss of hearing that can last from several hours to several days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in flight or after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the middle ear and become infected. If an ear block is experienced and does not clear shortly after landing, a physician should be consulted. Decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion usually do not provide adequate protection around the eustachian tubes. Oral decongestants have side effects that can significantly impair pilot performance. An ear block can be prevented by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. 6. Reissue - 1 June 1998 " • • PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS SINUS BLOCK 1 PHYSIOLOGICAL During climb and descent, air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the airplane cabin pressure through small openings that connect the sinuses to the nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around the openings to slow equalization, and as the difference in pressure between the sinus and cabin increases, eventually the opeQings plug. This "sinus block" occurs most frequently during descent. A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses, located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus block can also make the upper teeth ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from nasal passages. A sinus block can be prevented by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. If a sinus block does occur and does not clear shortly after landing, a physician should be consulted. VISION IN FLIGHT Of all the pilot's senses, vision is the most critical to safe flight. The level of illumination is the major factor to adequate in-flight vision. Details on flight instruments or aeronautical charts become difficult to discern under dimly lit conditions. Likewise, the detection of other aircraft is much more difficult under such conditions. In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to light, a process called dark adaptation. Although exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can achieve a moderate degree of dark adaptation within 20 minutes under dim red lighting. Since red light severely distorts colors, especially on aeronautical charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing the eyes on objects inside the cabin, its use is advisable only where optimum outside night vision is necessary. Even so, white flight station lighting must be available when needed for map and instrument reading, especially while under IFR conditions. Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5000 feet, carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes, deficiency of vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a bright light, pilots should close one eye when using a light to preserve some degree of night vision. In addition, use of sunglasses during the day will help speed the process of dark adaptation during night flight. Reissue - 1 June 1998 7 1 PHYSIOLOGICAL SCUBA DIVING PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS A pilot or passenger who flies shortly after prolonged scuba diving could be in Iserious danger. Anyone who intends to fly after scuba diving should allow the body sufficient time to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving. If . not, decompression sickness (commonly referred to as the "bends"), due to dissolved gas, can. occur even at low altitude and create a serious in-flight ~niergency. The recommended waiting time before flight to cabin altitudes of SOOO feet or less is at least 12 hours after diving which has not required controlled ascent (non-decompression diving), and at least 24 hours after diving which has required a controlled ascent (decompression diving). The waiting time before flight to cabin pressure altitudes above 8000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any scuba diving. AEROBATIC FLIGHT Pilots planning to engage in aerobatic maneuvers should be aware of the physiological stresses associated with accelerative forces during _ such maneuvers. Forces experienced with a rapid push-over maneuver will result in the blood and body organs being displaced toward the head. Depending on the forces involved and the individual tolerance, the pilot may experience discomfort, headache, "red-out" , and even unconsciousness. Forces • experienced with a rapid pull-up maneuver result in the blood and body organs being displaced toward the lower part of the body away from the head. Since the brain requires continuous blood circulation for an adequate oxygen supply, there is a physiological limit to the time the pilot can tolerate higher forces before losing consciousness. As the blood circulation to the brain decreases as a result of the forces involved, the pilot will experience "narrowing" of visual fields, "gray-out", "black-out", and unconsciousness. Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to imposed strains and stresses, and with practice, any maneuver will have a decreasing effect. Tolerance to "G" forces is dependent on human physiology and the individual pilot. These factors include the skeletal anatomy, the cardiovascular architecture, the nervous system, blood make-up, the general physical state, and experience and recency of exposure. A pilot should consult an Aviation Medical Examiner prior to aerobatic training and be aware that poor phYSical condition can reduce tolerance to accelerative forces. Reissue - 1 June 1998 • PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS CHECKLISTS CONSISTENT USE 2 CHECKLISTS Airplane checklists are available for those persons who do not wish to use the operating handbook on every flight. These checklists contain excerpts from the operating handbook written for that particular airpl:ane and are designed t'p remind pilots of the minimum items to check for safe operation of the airplane, without providing details concerning the operation of any particular system. Checklists should be used by the pilot and not placed in the seat pocket and forgotten. Even pilots who consistently carry the checklists tend to memorize certain areas and intentionally overlook these procedural references. Consequently, in time, these individuals find that operating something as complex as an airplane on memory alone is practically impossible, and eventually, could find themselves in trouble because one or more important items are overlooked or completely forgotten. The consistent use of all checklists is required for the safe operation of an airplane. NOTE Abbreviated checklists can be used in place of the airplane operating manual However, they should be used only after the pilot becomes familiar with the airplane operating manual, and thoroughly understands the required procedures for airplane operation. CONTRIBUTIONS TO SAFETY Most large airplanes in the transport category are flown by consistent use of all checklists. Experience has shown that pilots who consistently use checklists on every flight maintain higher overall proficiency, and have better safety records. The pilot should not become preoccupied inside the cockpit (such as with a checklist) and fail to remain alert for situations outside the airplane. CHECKLIST ARRANGEMENT (ORGANIZATION OF ITEMS) Abbreiviated checklists are written in a concise form to provide pilots with a means of complying with established requirements for the safe operation of their airplane. The checklists are usually arranged by "Item" and "Condition" headings. The item to be checked is listed with· the desired condition stated. Key words or switch and lever positions are usually emphasized by capitalization in the "Condition" column. The checklist may also contain supplemental information pertinent to the operation of the airplane, such as performance data, optional equipment operation, etc., that the pilot might routinely use. Reissue - 1 June 1998 I' ; ..... , . ~ ;1 r, ' ~ II'" ~.'.i~.;>~W . ~, 2 CHECKLISTS EMERGENCY CHECKLISTS PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS Emergency checklists are provided for emergency situations peculiar to a particular airplane design, operating or handling characteristic. Pilots should periodically review the airplane operating handbook to be completely familiar with information published by the manufacturer conce~ning the airplane. Emergency situations are never planned and may occur at the worst possible time. During most emergency conditions, there will not be sufficient time to refer to an emergency checklist; therefore, it is essential that the pilot commit to memory those emergency procedures that may be shown in bold-face type or outlined with a black border, within the emergency procedures section in operating handbooks or equivalent hand-held checklists. These items are essential for continued safe flight. After the emergency situation is under control, the pilot should complete the checklist in its entirety, in the proper sequence, and confirm that all items have been accomplished. It is essential that the pilot review and know published emergency checklists and any other emergency procedures. Familiarity with the airplane and its systems and a high degree of pilot proficiency are valuable assets if an emergency should arise. 2 ' Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AIRPLANE LOADING 3 AIRPLANE LOADING AIRPLANE CENTER-Of-GRAVITY RANGE Pilots should never become complacent about the weight and balance limitations of an airplane, and the reasons for these limitations. Since weight and balance are vital to safe airplane operation, every pilot should have a thorough understanding of airplane loading, with its limitations, and the principles of airplane balance. Airplane balance is maintained by controlling the position of the center-of-gravity. Overloading, or misloading, may not result in obvious structural damage, but could do harm to hidden structure or produce a dangerous situation in the event of an emergency under those conditions. Overloading, or misloading may also produce hazardous airplane handling characteristics. There are several different weights to be considered when dealing with airplane weight and balance. These are defined in another paragraph in this supplement. Airplanes are designed with predetermined structural limitations to meet certain performance and flight characteristics and standards. Their balance is determined by the relationship of the center-of-gravity (C.G.) to the center of lift. Normally, the C.G. of an airplane is located slightly forward of the center of lift. The pilot can safely use the airplane flight controls to maintain stabilized balance of the airplane as long as the C.G. is located within specified forward and aft limits. The allowable variation of the C.G. location is called the center-of-gravity range. The exact location of the allowable C.G. range is specified in the operating handbook for that particular airplane. LOCATING THE LOAD It is the responsibility of the pilot to ensure that the airplane is loaded properly. Operation outside of prescribed weight and balance limitations could result in an accident and serious or fatal injury. To determine the center-of-gravity (C.G.) of an airplane, a pilot must have an understanding of the three terms used in weight and balance calculations. These terms are weight, moment, and arm. The principles associated with these terms are applied to each occupant, piece of cargo or baggage, the airplane itself, and to all fuel to determine the overall C.G. of the airplane. The weight of an object should be carefully determined or calculated. All weights must be measured in the same units as the aircraft empty weight. The arm is the distance that the weight of a particular item is located from the reference datum line or the imaginary vertical line from which all horizontal distances are measured for balance purposes (refer to examples in Figure 1).. __ - Reissue - 1 June 1998 I', 3 AIRPLANE LOADING PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS The word "moment," as used in airplane loading procedures, is the product of the weight of the object multiplied by the arm. GEt> UJ z ::i ::i: ::l ~UJ U Z UJ a: 1-----20IN.-----l I (AVERAGE ARM) 1 UJ I.L UJ a: 1---------30 IN. ---------l.1 (ARM) WXA 10 LB. X 30 IN. 10 LB. X 10 IN. 20 LB.(W) M + 300 LB. IN. + 100 LB. IN. + 400 LB. IN. TOTAL WEIGHT Rgure 1. Computing the Center-of-Gravity Pilots can remember and use the relationship of these terms most easily by arranging them in a mathematical triangle: weight x arm = moment moment .;- weight = arm moment .;- arm = weight The relative position of any two terms indicates the mathematical process (multiplication or division) required to compute the third term. A loading graph or loading tables, a center-of-gravity limits chart and/or a center-of-gravity moment envelope chart, as well as a sample loading problem are provided in most airplane operating handbooks. By following the narrative directions, the pilot can determine the correct airplane C.G. for any configuration of the airplane. If the position of the load is different from that shown on the loading graph or in the loading tables, additional moment Reissue - 1 June 1998 •\','" l PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 3 AIRPLANE LOADING calculations, based on the actual weight and C.G. arm (fuselage station) of the item being loaded, must be performed. LOAD SECURITY In addition to the security of passengers, it is the pilot's responsibility to determine that all cargo and/or baggage is secured before flight. When required, the airplane may be equipped with tie-down rings or fittings for the purpose of securing cargo or baggage in the baggage compartment or cabin area. The maximum allowable cargo loads to be carried are determined by cargo weight limitations, the type and number of tie-downs used, as well as by the airplane weight and C.G. limitations. Always carefully observe all precautions listed in the operating handbook concerning cargo tiedown. Pilots should assist in ensuring seat security and proper restraint for all passengers. Pilots should also advise passengers not to put heavy or sharp items under occupied seats since these items may interfere with the seats' energy absorption characteristics in the event of a crash. Optional equipment installed in the airplane can affect loading, and the airplane center-of-gravity. Under certain loading conditions in tricycle gear airplanes, it is possible to exceed the aft C.G. limit, which could cause the airplane to tip and allow the fuselage tailcone to strike the ground while loading the airplane. The force of a tail ground strike could damage internal structure, resulting in possible interference with elevator control system operation. EFFECTS OF LOADING ON THE FLIGHT Weight and balance limits are placed on airplanes for three principal reasons: first, the effect of the weight on the primary and secondary structures; second, the effect on airplane performance; and third, the effect on flight controllability, particularly in stall and spin recovery. A knowledge of load factors in flight maneuvers and gusts is important for understanding how an increase in maximum weight affects the characteristics of an airplane. The structure of an airplane subjected to a load factor of 3 Gs, must be capable of withstanding an added load of three hundred pounds for each hundred pound increase in weight. All Ces.sna airplanes are analyzed and tested for flight at the maximum authorized weight, and within the speeds posted for the type of flight to be performed. Flight at weights in excess of this amount may be possible, but loads for which the airplane was not designed may be imposed on all or some part of the structure. An airplane loaded to the rear limit of its permissible center-of-gravity range will respond differently than when it is loaded near the forward limit. The stall Reissue - 1 June 1998 3 3 AIRPLANE LOADING PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS characteristics of an airplane change as the airplane load changes, and stall characteristics become progressively better as center-of-gravity moves forward. Distribution of weight can also have a significant effect on spin .\.... characteristics. Forward location of the C.G. will usually make it more difficult . to obtain a spin. Conversely, extremely aft C.G. locations will tend to promote j lengthened recoveries since a more complete stall can be achieved. Changes in airplane weight as well as its distribution can have ·an effect on spin characteristics since increases in weight will increase inertia. Higher weights r;nay delay recoveries. An airplane loaded beyond the forward C.G. limit will be nose heavy, and can be difficult to rotate for takeoff or flare for landing. Airplanes with tail wheels can be nosed over more easily. LOAD AND LATERAL TRIM Some airplanes have a maximum limit for wing fuel lateral imbalance and/or a maximum wing locker load limitation. These limitations are required for one or both of two primary reasons. The first is to ensure that the airplane will maintain certain roll responses mandated by its certification. The other is to prevent overheating and interruption of lateral trim on certain types of autopilots caused by the excessive work required to maintain a wings level attitude while one wing is heavier than the other. Pilots should carefully observe such limitations and keep the fuel balance within the limits set forth in the respective operating handbook. WEIGHT AND BALANCE TERMINOLOGY The following list is provided in order to familiarize pilots and owners with the terminology used in calculating the weight and balance of Cessna airplanes. (Some terminology listed herein is defined and used in Pilot's Operating Handbooks only.) Arm Basic Empty Weight The horizontal distance from the reference datum to the center-of-gravity (C.G.) of an item. The standard empty weight plus the weight of installed optional equipment. • <.•.i "~ 4 . " Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 3 AIRPLANE LOADING C.G. Arm C.G. Limits Center-of-Gravity (C.G.) MAC Maximum Landing Weight Maximum Ramp Weight Maximum Takeoff Weight Maximum Zero Fuel Weight Moment Payload Reference Datum Standard Empty Weight Station Reissue - 1 June 1998 The arm obtained by adding the airplane's individual moments and dividing the sum by the total weight. The extreme center-of-gravity locations within which the airplane must be operated at a given weight. The point at which an airplane or item of equipment would balance if suspended. ' Its distance from the reference datum is found by dividing the total moment by the total weight of the airplane or item of equipment. The mean aerodynamic chord of a wing is the chord of an imaginary airfoil which throughout the flight range will have the same force vectors as those of the wing. The maximum weight approved for the landing touchdown. The maximum weight approved for ground maneuvers. It includes the weight of start, taxi and runup fuel. The maximum weight approved for the start of the takeoff roll. The maximum weight exclusive of usable fuel. The product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm. (Moment divided by a constant is used to simplify balance calculations by reducing the number of digits.) The weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage. An imaginary vertical plane from which all horizontal distances are measured for balance purposes. The weight of a standard airplane, including unusable fuel, full operating fluids and full engine oil. In those manuals which refer to this weight as Licensed Empty Weight, the weight of engine oil is not included and must be added separately in weight and balance calculations. ) A location along the airplane fuselage given in terms of the distance from the reference datum. 5 " 3 AIRPLANE LOADING Tare Unusable Fuel Usable Fuel Useful Load PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS The weight of chocks, blocks, stands, etc., used when weighing an airplane, and is included in the scale readings. Tare is deducted from the scale reading to obtain the actual (net) airplane weight. The quantity of fuel that cannot -be safely used in flight. The fuel available for flight planning. The difference between ramp weight and th'e basic empty weight. Reissue - 1 June 1998 • PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 4 SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT (MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES) SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT INFORMATION (MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES) INTRODUCTION The following discussion is intended primarily for pilots of propeller-driven, light twin-engine airplanes, powered by reciprocating engines and certified under CAR Part 3 or FAR Part 23. This discussion is not intended to apply to specific models, but is intended, instead, to give general guidelines or recommendations for operations in the event of an engine failure during flight. SINGLE ENGINE TAKEOFF AND CLIMB Each time a pilot considers a takeoff in a twin-engine airplane, knowledge is required of the Minimum Control Speed (VMC) for that particular airplane. Knowledge of this speed, is essential to ensure safe operation of the airplane in the event an engine power loss occurs during the most critical phases of flight, the takeoff and initial climb. VMC is the minimum flight speed at which the airplane is directionally and laterally controllable as determined in accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations. Airplane certification conditions include: one engine becoming inoperative and windmilling; not more than a 5-degree bank toward the operative engine; takeoff power on the operative engine; landing gear retracted; flaps in the takeoff position; and the most critical C.G. (center of gravity). A multi-engine airplane must reach the minimum control speed before full control deflections can counteract the adverse rolling and/or yawing tendencies associated with one engine inoperative and full power operation on the other engine. The most critical time for an engine failure is during a two or three second period, late in the takeoff, while the airplane is accelerating to a safe speed. Should an engine failure be experienced before liftoff speed is reached, the takeoff must be aborted. If an engine failure occurs immediately after liftoff, but before the landing gear is retracted, continue takeoff while retracting gear. Abort takeoff only if sufficient runway is available. This decision should be made before the takeoff is initiated. The pilot of a twin-engine airplane must exercise good judgment and take prompt action in the decision whether or not to abort a takeoff attempt following an engine failure, since many factors will influence the decision. Reissue - 1 June 1998 ::,:. 4 SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT (MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES) PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS Some of these factors include: runway length, grade and surface condition (i.e., slippery, dry, etc.), field elevation, temperature, wind speed and direction, terrain or obstructions in the vicinity of the runway, airplane weight and Single I:,.engine climb capability under the prevailing conditions, among others. The ' pilot should abort the takeoff, following an engine-out, even if the airplane has lifted off the runway, if runway conditions permit. However, under limited circumstances (i.e., short runway with obstructions) the pilot may have to continue the takeoff following a liftoff and an engine-out. While it may be possible to continue the takeoff at light weights and with favorable atmospheric conditions following an engine failure just after liftoff, long distances are required to clear even small obstacles. Distances required to clear an obstacle are reduced under more favorable combinations of weight, headwind component, or obstacle height. The pilot's decision to continue the takeoff after an engine failure should be based on consideration of either the single engine best angle-of-climb speed (VXSE) if an obstacle is ahead, or the single engine best rate-of-climb speed (VYSE) when no obstacles are present in the climb area. Once the single engine best angle-of-climb speed is reached, altitude becomes more important than airspeed until the obstacle is cleared. On the other hand, the single engine best rate-of-climb speed becomes more important when there are no obstacles ahead. Refer to the Owners Manual, Flight Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook for the proper airspeeds and procedures to be used in the event of an engine failure during takeoff. Refer to the warning placard "To Continue Flight With An Inoperative Engine" in the airplane's operating handbook and/or on the instrument panel for additional information. Should an engine failure occur at or above these prescribed airspeeds, the airplane, within the limitations of its single engine climb performance, should be maneuvered to a landing. After the airplane has been "cleaned up" following an engine failure (landing gear and wing flaps retracted and the propeller feathered on the inoperative engine), it may be accelerated to its single engine best rate-of-climb speed. If immediate obstructions so dictate, the single engine best angle-of-climb speed may be maintained until the obstacles are cleared. In no case should the speed be allowed to drop below single engine best angle-of-climb speed unless an immediate landing is planned, since airplane performance capabilities will deteriorate rapidly as the airspeed decreases. After clearing all immediate obstacles, the airplane should be accelerated slowly to its single engine best rate-of-climb speed and the climb continued to a safe altitude which will allow maneuvering for a return to the airport for landing. To obtain Single engine best climb performance with one engine inoperative, the airplane must be flown in a 3 to 5 degree bank toward the operating engine. The rudder is used to maintain straight flight, compensating for the asymmetrical engine power. The ball of the turn-and-bank indicator should not 2 " Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 4 SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT (MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES) be centered, but should be displaced about 1/2 ball width toward the operating engine. The propeller on the inoperative engine must be feathered, the landing gear retracted, and the wing flaps retracted for continued safe flight. Climb performance of an airplane with a propeller windmilling usually is nonexistent. Once the decision to feather a propeller has been made, the pilot should ensure that the propeller feathers properly and remains feathered. The landing gear and wing flaps also cause a severe reduction in climb performance and both should be retracted as soon as possible (in accordance with the operating handbook limitations). The following general facts should be used as a guide if an engine failure occurs during or immediately after takeoff: 1. Discontinuing a takeoff upon encountering an engine failure is advisable under most circumstances. Continuing the takeoff, if an engine failure occurs prior to reaching single engine best angle-of- climb speed and landing gear retraction, is not advisable. 2. Altitude is more valuable to safety immediately after takeoff than is airspeed in excess of the single engine best angle-of-climb speed. 3. A windmilling propeller .and extended landing gear cause a severe drag penalty and, therefore, climb or continued level flight is improbable, depending on weight, altitude and temperature. Prompt retraction of the landing gear (except Model 337 series), identification of the inoperative engine, and feathering of the propeller is of utmost importance if the takeoff is to be continued. 4. Unless touchdown is imminent, in no case should airspeed be allowed to fall below single engine best angle-of-climb speed even though altitude is lost, since any lesser speed will result in significantly reduced climb performance. 5. If the requirement for an immediate climb is not present, allow the airplane to accelerate to the single engine best rate-of-climb speed since this speed will always provide the best chance of climb or least altitude loss. SINGLE ENGINE CRUISE Losing one engine during cruise on a multi-engine airplane causes little immediate problem for a proficient, properly trained' pilot. After advancing power on the operating engine and retrimming the airplane to maintain altitude, if possible the pilot should attempt to determine if the cause of the engine failure can be corrected in flight prior to feathering the propeller. The magneto/ignition switches should be checked to see if they are on, and the fuel flow and fuel quantity for the affected engine should also be verified. If the engine failure was apparently caused by fuel starvation, switching to another fuel tank and/or turning on the auxiliary fuel pump (if equipped) or adjusting the Reissue - 1 June 1998 3 4 SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT (MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES) PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS mixture control may alleviate the condition. It must be emphasized that these procedures are not designed to replace the procedural steps listed in the emergency procedures section of the airplane operating handbook, but are presented as a guide to be used by the pilot if, in his or her judgment, corrective action should be attempted prior to shutting down a failing or malfunctioning engine. Altitude, terrain, weather conditions, weight, and accessibility of. suitable landing areas must all be considered before attempting to determine and/or correct the cause of an engine failure. In any event, if an engine fails in cruise and cannot be restarted, a landing at the nearest suitable airport is recommended. SINGLE ENGINE APPROACH AND LANDING OR GO-AROUND An approach and landing with one engine inoperative on a mUlti-engine airplane can easily be completed by a proficient, properly trained pilot. However, the pilot must plan and prepare the airplane much earlier than normal to ensure success. While preparing, fuel should be scheduled so that an adequate amount is available for use by the operative engine. All crossfeeding should be completed during level flight above a minimum altitude of 1000 feet AGL. During final approach, the pilot should maintain the single engine best rate-of- climb speed or higher, until the landing is assured. An attempt should be made to keep the approach as normal as possible, considering the situation. Landing gear should be extended on downwind leg or over the final approach fix, as applicable. Flaps should be used to control the descent through the approach. Consideration should be given to a loss of the other engine or the necessity to make an engine inoperative go around. Under certain combinations of weight, temperature and altitude, neither level flight nor a single engine go-around may be possible. Do not attempt an engine inoperative go-around after the wing flaps have been extended beyond the normal approach or the published approach flap setting, unless enough altitude is available to allow the wing flaps to be retracted to the normal approach or the published approach flap setting, or less. Reissue - 1 June 1998 I PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS PILOT PROFICIENCY AIRSPEED CONTROL _ 5 PILOT PROFICIENCY Flying other than published airspeeds could put the pilot and airplane in an unsafe situation. The airspeeds published in the airplane's operating handbook have been tested and proven to help prevent unusual situations. For example, proper liftoff speed puts the airplane in the best position for a smooth transition to a climb attitude. However, if liftoff is too early, drag increases and consequently increases the takeoff ground run. This procedure also degrades controllability of multi-el)gine airplanes in the event an engine failure occurs after takeoff. In addition, early liftoff increases the time required to accelerate from liftoff to either the single-engine best rate-of-climb speed (VYSE) or the single-engine best angle-of-climb speed (VXSE) if an obstacle is ahead. On the other hand, if liftoff is late, the airplane will tend to "leap" into the climb. Pilots should adhere to the published liftoff 9r takeoff speed for their particular airplane. The pilot should be familiar with the stall characteristics of the airplane when stalled from a normal 1 G stall. Any airplane can be stalled at any speed. The absolute maximum speed at which full aerodynamic control can be safely applied is listed in the airplane's operating handbook as the maneuvering speed. Do not make full or abrupt control movements above this speed. To do so could induce structural damage to the airplane. TRAFFIC PATTERN MANEUVERS There have been incidents in the vicinity of controlled airports that were caused primarily by pilots executing unexpected maneuvers. Air Traffic Control (ATC) service is based upon observed or known traffic and airport conditions. Air Traffic Controllers establish the sequence of arriving and departing airplanes by advising them to adjust their flight as necessary to achieve proper spacing. These adjustments can only be based on observed traffic, accurate pilot radio reports, and anticipated airplane maneuvers. Pilots are expected to cooperate so as to preclude disruption of the traffic flow or the creation of conflicting traffic patterns. The pilot in command of an airplane is directly responsible for and is the final authority as to the operation of his or her airplane. On occasion, it may be necessary for a pilot to maneuver an airplane to maintain spacing with the traffic he or she has been sequenced to follow. The controller can anticipate minor maneuvering such as shallow "S" turns. The controller cannot, however, anticipate a major maneuver such as a 360-degree turn. This can result in a gap in the landing interval and more importantly, it causes a chain reaction which may result in a conflict with other traffic and an interruption of the sequence established by the tower or Reissue - 1 June 1998 5 PILOT PROFICIENCY PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS approach controller. The pilot should always advise the controller of the need to make any maneuvering turns. USE OF LIGHTS Aircraft position (navigation) and anti-collision lights are required to be illuminated on aircraft operated at night. Anti-collision lights, however, may be turned off when the pilot in command determines that, because of operating conditions, it would be in the interest of safety to do so. For example, strobe lights should be turned off on the ground when they adversely affect ground personnel or other pilots, and in flight when there are adverse reflections from clouds. To enhance the "see-and-avoid" concept, pilots are encouraged to turn on their rotation beacon any time the engine(s) are operating, day or night. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when operating within ten miles of any airport, day or night, in conditions of reduced visibility and areas where flocks of birds may be expected (Le., coastal areas, around refuse dumps, etc.). Although turning on airplane lights does enhance the "see-and- avoid" concept, pilots should not become complacent about keeping a sharp lookout for other airplanes. Not all airplanes are equipped with lights and some pilots may not have their lights turned on. Use of the taxi light, in lieu of the landing light, on some smaller airplanes may extend the landing light service life. Propeller and jet blast forces generated by large airplanes have overturned or damaged several smaller airplanes taxiing behind them. To avoid similar results, and in the interest of preventing upsets and injuries to ground personnel from such forces, the FAA recommends that air carriers and commercial operators turn on their rotating beacons anytime their airplane engine(s) are operating. All other pilots, using airplanes equipped with rotating beacons, are also encouraged to participate in this program which is designed to alert others to the potential hazard. Since this is a voluntary program, exercise caution and do not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an indication that airplane engines are operating. PARTIAL PANEL FLYING All pilots, and especially instrument rated pilots, should know the emergency procedures for partial instrument panel operation included in their respective operating handbook, as well as any FAA training material on the subject. Routine periodic practice under simulated instrument conditions with a partial instrument panel can be very beneficial to a pilot's proficiency. In this case, Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING ·SUPPLEMENTS 5 PILOT PROFICIENCY the pilot should have a qualified safety pilot monitoring the simulated instrument practice. If a second vacuum system is not installed and a complete vacuum system failure occurs during flight, the vacuum-driven directional indicator and attitude indicator will be disabled, and the pilot will have to rely on the turn coordinator or the turn and bank indicator if he or she flies into instrument meteorological conditions. If an autopilot is installed, it too will be affected, and should not be used. The following instructions assume that only the ele,ctrically-powered turn coordinator is operative, and that the pilot is not completely proficient in instrument flying. EXECUTING A 180 0 TURN IN CLOUDS Upon inadvertently entering a cloud(s), an immediate plan should be made to turn back as follows: 1. Note compass heading. 2. Note the time in both minutes and seconds. 3. When the seconds indicate the nearest half-minute, initiate a standard rate left turn, holding the turn coordinator (or turn and bank indicator if installed) symbolic airplane wing opposite the lower left wing index mark for 60 seconds. Then roll back to level flight by leveling the miniature airplane. 4. Assure level flight through and after the turn by referencing the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed indicator. Altitude may be maintained with cautious use of the elevator controls. 5. Check accuracy of turn by observing the compass heading which should be the reciprocal of the original heading. 6. If necessary, adjust heading primarily with skidding motions rather than rolling motions so that the compass will read more accurately. 7. Maintain altitude and airspeed by cautious application of elevator control. Avoid over-controlling by keeping the hands off the control wheel as much as possible and steering only with the rudder. EMERGENCY DESCENT THROUGH CLOUDS If conditions preclude reestablishment of VFR flight by a 180 0 turn, a descent through a cloud deck to VFR conditions may be appropriate. If possible, obtain ATC clearance for an emergency descent. To guard against a spiral dive, choose an easterly or westerly heading to minimi~e compass card swings due to changing bank angles. In addition, keep hands off the control wheel and steer a straight course with rudder control by monitoring the turn and bank or turn coordinator. Occasionally check the compass heading and make minor corrections to hold an approximate course. Before descending into the clouds, set up a stabilized let-down condition as follows: 1. Extend the landing gear (if applicable). Reissue - 1 June 1998 3 5 PILOT PROFICIENCY PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 2. Reduce power to set up a 500 to 800 ftlmin rate of descent. 3. Adjust mixture(s) as required for smooth engine operation. 4. Adjust elevator or stabilizer, rudder and aileron trim controls for a stabilized descent. 5. Keep hands off the control wheel. Monitor turn and bank or turn coordinator and make corrections by rudder alone. 6. Check trend of compass card movement and make cautious correctrons with rudder inputs to stop turn. 7. Upon breaking out of the clouds, reSUfTle normal cruising flight. RECOVERY FROM A SPIRAL DIVE If a spiral dive is encountered while in the clouds, proceed as follows: 1. Retard the throttle(s) to idle. 2. Stop the turn by using coordinated aileron and rudder control to align the symbolic airplane in the turn coordinator with the horizontal reference line, or center the turn needle and ball of the turn and ·bank indicator. a. With a Significant airspeed increase or altitude loss while in the spiral, anticipate that the aircraft will pitch nose-up when the wings are level. Take care not to overstress the airframe as a result of this nose-up pitching tendency. •. 3. Cautiously apply control wheel back pressure (if necessary) to slowly .i reduce the airspeed. 4. Adjust the elevator or stabilizer trim control to maintain a constant glide airspeed. 5. Keep hands off the control wheel, using rudder control to hold a straight heading. Use rudder trim to relieve unbalanced rudder force, if present. 6. If the power-off glide is of sufficient duration, adjust the mixture(s), as required. 7. Upon breaking out of the clouds, resume normal cruising flight. USE OF LANDING GEAR AND FLAPS A review of airplane accident investigation reports indicates a complacent attitude on the part of some pilots toward the use of checklists for landing gear and wing flap operation. The main confession of most pilots involved in involuntary gear-up landings is that they "forgot" to lower the gear prior to landing. Consistent use of the Before Landing Checklist would have alerted these pilots and prevented a potentially hazardous situation. Other causes of gear-up landings have been attributed to poor judgment, such as not leaving •...• the landing gear extended while performing several landings while remaining in the traffic pattern. The following recommendations will lessen the possibility of a gear-up landing. Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 5 PILOT PROFICIENCY 1. Never move the landing gear control switch, handle, or lever while the airplane is on the ground. 2. Do not deliberately disable any landing gear warning device or light unless indicated otherwise in the operating handbook. 3. Apply brakes before retraction of the landing gear to stop wheel rotation. 4. After takeOff, do not retract the landing gear until a positive rate of climb is indicated. , 5. When selecting a landing gear position, whether..up or down, allow the landing gear to complete the initial cycle to the locked position before moving the control switch, handle, or lever in the opposite direction. 6. Never exceed the published landing gear operating speed (VLO) while the landing gear is in transit or the maximum landing gear extended speed (VLE). 7. Prepare for landing early in the approach so that trim adjustments after lowering landing gear or flaps will not compromise the approach. 8. Leave landing gear extended during consecutive landings when the airplane remains in the traffic pattern unless traffic pattern speeds exceed the Maximum Landing Gear Extended Speed (VLE). A rare, but serious problem that may result from a mechanical failure in the flap system is split wing flaps. This phenomenon occurs when the wing flap position on one wing does not agree with the flap pOSition on the opposite wing, causing a rOiling tendency. Split flaps can be detected and safely countered if flap control movement is limited to small increments during inflight operations from full down to full up and full up to full down. If a roll is detected during flap selection, reposition the flap selector to the pOSition from which it was moved and the roll should be eliminated. Depending on the experience and proficiency of the pilot, the rolling tendencies caused by a split flap situation may be controlled with opposite aileron (and differential power for multi-engine aircraft). Some documented contributing factors to split flaps are: 1. Pilots exceeding the Maximum Flap Extended (VFE) speed for a given flap setting. 2. Mechanical failure. 3. Improper maintenance. ILLUSIONS IN FLIGHT Many different illusions can be experienced in flight. Some can lead to spatial disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors .. Illusions rank among the most common factors cited as contributing to fatal airplane accidents. Various complex motions and forces and certain visual scenes encountered in flight can create illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorientation from these illusions can be prevented only by visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground, or to flight instruments. Reissue - 1 June 1998 5 5 PILOT PROFICIENCY PILOT SAFETVAND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS An abrupt correction of banked attitude, which has been entered too slowly to stimulate the motion sensing system in the middle ear, can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will roll the airplane back to its original dangerous attitude or, if level flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides. This. phenomenon is usually referred to as the "leans" and the following illusions fall under this category. 6" 1. Coriolis illusion - An abrupt head movement in a prolonged constant- rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of rotation or movement on an entirely different axis. The disoriented pilot will maneuver the airplane into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to stop this illusion of rotation. This most overwhelming of all illusions in flight may be prevented by not making sudden, extreme head movements, particularly while making prolonged constant-rate turns under IFR conditions. 2. Graveyard spin - A proper recovery from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of spinning in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will return the airplane to its original spin. 3. Graveyard spiral - An observed loss of altitude during a coordinated constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings level. In this case, the disoriented pilot will pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the normal load factor on the airplane. 4. Somatogravlc illusion - A rapid acceleration during takeoff can create the illusion of being in a nose up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push the airplane into a nose low, or dive attitude. A rapid deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttle(s) can have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the airplane into a nose up, or stall attitude. 5. Inversion Illusion - An abrupt change from climb to straight and level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot will push the airplane abruptly into a nose low attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion. 6. Elevator illusion - An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, usually caused by an updraft, can create the illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot will push the airplane into a nose low attitude. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually caused by a downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the airplane into a nose up attitude. 7. False horizon - Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being aligned correctly with the horizon. The disoriented pilot will place the airplane in a dangerous attitude. Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 5 PILOT PROFICIENCY 8. Autokinesis - In the dark, a static light will appear to move about when stared at for many seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the airplane in attempting to align it with the light. Various surface features and atmospheric conditions encountered during landing can create illusions of incorrect height above and distance away from the runway threshold. Landing errors from these illusions can be prevented by: anticipating them during approaches, aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing, using an electronic glide slope or visual approach slope indicator (VASI) system when available, and maintaining optimum proficiency in landing procedures. The following illusions apply to this category. 1. Runway width illusion - A narrower than usual runway can create the illusion that the a,irplane is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will tend to fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects along the approach path, or land short. A wider than usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of flaring high and landing hard or overshooting the runway. 2. Runway and terrain slopes illUSion - An up sloping runway, up sloping terrain, or both, can create the illusion that the airplane is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A down sloping runway, down sloping approach terrain, or both, can have the opposite effect. 3. Featureless terrain illusion - An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, darkened areas and terrain made featureless by snow, can create the illusion that the airplane is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will tend to fly a lower approach. 4. Atmospheric illusion - Rain on the windshield can create an illusion of greater height, and a greater distance from the runway. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will tend to fly a lower approach. Penetration of fog can create the illusion of pitching up. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will steepen the approach, often quite abruptly. 5. Ground lighting illusions - Lights along a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on trains, can be mistaken for runway and approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less distance to the runway.. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will tend to fly a higher approach. Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few lights to provide height cues may make a lower than normal approach. Reissue - 1 June 1998 7 5 PILOT PROFICIENCY PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 4. Don't fly a light airplane when the winds aloft, at your proposed altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour. Expect the winds to be of much greater velocity over mountain passes than reported a few miles from them. Approach mountain passes with as much altitude as possible. Downdrafts of from 1500 to 2000 feet per minute are not uncommon on the leeward (downwind) side. 5. Severe turbulence can be expected near or ab.ove changes in terrain, especially in high wind conditions. 6. Some canyons run into a dead end. Don't fly so far into a canyon that you get trapped. Always be able to make a 180-degree turn, or if canyon flying is necessary, fly down the canyon (toward lower terrain), not up the canyon (toward higher terrain). 7. Plan the trip for the early morning hours. As a rule, the air starts to get turbulent at about 10 a.m., and grows steadily worse until around 4 p.m., then gradually improves until dark. 8. When landing at a high altitude airfield, the same indicated airspeed should be used as at low elevation fields. Due to the less dense air at altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually results in a higher true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and a longer landing distance. During gusty wind conditions, which often prevail at high altitude fields, a "power approach" is recommended. Additionally, due to the faster ground speed and reduced engine performance at altitude, the takeoff distance will increase considerably over that required at lower altitudes. OBSTRUCTIONS TO FLIGHT Pilots should exercise extreme caution when flying less than 2000 feet above ground level (AGL) because of the numerous structures (radio and television antenna towers) exceeding 1000 feet AGL, with some extending higher than 2000 feet AGL. Most truss type structures are supported by guy wires. The wires are difficult to see in good weather and can be totally obscured during periods of dusk and reduced visibility. These wires can extend approximately 1500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all truss type structures should be avoided by at least 2000 feet, horizontally and vertically. Overhead transmission and utility lines often span approaches to runways and scenic flyways such as lakes, rivers, and canyons. The supporting structures of these lines may not always be readily visible and the wires may be virtually invisible under certain conditions. Most of these installations do not meet criteria which determine them to be obstructions to air navigation and therefore, do not require marking and/or lighting. The supporting structures of some overhead transmission lines are equipped with flashing strobe lights. These lights indicate wires exist between the strobe equipped structures. " 10 Reissue - 1 June 1998 I PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL MANAGEMENT POOR TECHNIQUES 6 FUEL MANAGEMENT Poor fuel management is often the cause of aircraft ,accidents. Some airplane accident reports have listed such poor fuel management techniques as switching to another fuel tank after the before takeoff runup was completed, and then experiencing engine problems on takeoff. Other reports tell of pilots switching fuel tanks at a critical point on the approach to a landing and inadvertently selecting an empty tank when there is not enough time to compensate for the subsequent loss of power. Flying low during day cross- country, or moderately low at night, can be hazardous if a fuel tank runs dry. Too much altitude may be lost during the time it takes to discover the reason for power loss, select a different fuel tank, and restart the engine. Pilots should be thoroughly familiar with the airplane fuel system and tank switching procedures. Furthermore, it is an unsafe technique to run a fuel tank dryas a routine procedure, although there are exceptions. Any sediment or water not drained from the fuel tank could be drawn into the fuel system and cause erratic operation or even total power loss. FUELING THE AIRCRAFT The aircraft should be on level ground during all fueling operations, since filling the tanks when the aircraft is not level may result in a fuel quantity less than the maximum capacity. Rapid filling of a fuel tank, without allowing time for air in the tank to escape, may result in a lower fuel quantity. Some single engine aircraft that allow simultaneous use of fuel from more than one tank have fuel tanks with interconnected vent lines. If the tanks are filled with fuel and the aircraft allowed to sit with one wing lower than the other, fuel may drain from the higher tank to the lower and subsequently out the fuel vent. This will result in loss of fuel. This fuel loss may be prevented by placing the fuel selector in a position other than "both". Some Cessna single-engine airplanes have long, narrow fuel tanks. If your airplane is so equipped, it may be necessary to partially fill each tank alternately, and repeat the sequence as required to completely fill the tanks to their maximum capacity. This method of fueling helps prevent the airplane from settling to a wing-low attitude because of increased fuel weight in the fullest wing tank. It is always the responsibility of the pilot-in-command to ensure sufficient fuel is available for the planned flight. Refer to the airplane operating handbook for proper fueling procedures. Reissue - 1 June 1998 6 FUEL MANAGEMENT UNUSABLE FUEL PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS Unusable fuel is the quantity of fuel that cannot safely be used in flight. The .' amount of unusable fuel varies with airplane and fuel system design, and the ; maximum amount is determined in accordance with Civil or Federal Aviation ,j Regulations (CARs or FARs). Unusable fuel is always included in the airplane's licensed or basic empty weight for weight and -balance purposes. Unusable fuel should never be included when computing the endurance of any airplane. FUEL PLANNING WITH MINIMUM RESERVES Airplane accidents involving engine power loss continue to reflect fuel starvation as the primary cause or a contributing factor. Some of these accidents were caused by departing with insufficient fuel onboard to complete the intended flight. Fuel exhaustion in flight can mean only one thing - a forced landing with the possibility of serious damage, injury, or death. A pilot should not begin a flight without determining the fuel required and verifying its presence onboard. To be specific, during VFR conditions, do not take off unless there is enough fuel to fly to the planned destination (considering wind and forecast weather conditions), assuming the airplane's normal cruising airspeed, fly after that for at least 30 minutes during the day, or at least 45 minutes at night. Departure fuel requirements are a little different when operating under IFR conditions. Do not depart an airport on an IFR trip unless the airplane has enough fuel to complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing (considering weather reports and forecasts) and fly from that airport to the planned alternate airport, and afterwards still fly at least 45 minutes at normal cruising speed. FLIGHT COORDINATION VS. FUEL FLOW The shape of most airplane wing fuel tanks is such that, in certain flight maneuvers, the fuel may move away from the fuel tank supply outlet. If the outlet is uncovered, fuel flow to the engine may be interrupted and a temporary loss of power might result. Pilots can prevent inadvertent uncovering of the tank outlet by having adequate fuel in the tank selected and avoiding maneuvers such as prolonged uncoordinated flight or sideslips which move fuel away from the feed lines. • It is important to observe the uncoordinated flight or sideslip limitations listed in the respective operating handbook. As a general rule, limit uncoordinated flight or sideslip to 30 seconds in duration when the fuel level in the selected fuel tank is 1/4 full or less. Airplanes are usually considered in a sideslip e;anytime the turn and bank "ball" is more than one quarter ball out of the center (coordinated flight) position. The amount of usable fuel decreases with the severity of the sideslip in all cases. 2 ~ Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFElY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 6 FUEL MANAGEMENT FUEL SELECTION FOR APPROACH/LANDING On some single-engine airplanes, the fuel selector valve handle is normally positioned to the BOTH position to allow symmetric fuel feed from each wing fuel tank. However, if the airplane is not kept in coordinated flight, unequal fuel flow may occur. The resulting wing heaviness may be corrected during flight by turning the fuel selector valve handle to the tank il'l the "heavy" wing. On other single-engine airplanes, the fuel selector has tEFT ON or RIGHT ON positions, and takeoffs and landings are to be accomplished using fuel from the fuller tank. Most multi-engine airplanes have fuel tanks in each wing or in wing tip tanks, and it is advisable to feed the engines symmetrically during cruise so that approximately the same amount of fuel will be left in each side for descent, approach, and landing. If fuel has been consumed at uneven rates between the two wing tanks because of prolonged single-engine flight, fuel leak or Siphon, or improper fuel servicing, it is desirable to balance the fuel load by operating both engines from the fuller tank. However, as long as there is sufficient fuel in both wing tanks, even though they may have unequal quantities, it is important to switch the left and right fuel selectors to the left and right wing tanks, respectively, feeling for the detent, prior to the approach. This will ensure that adequate fuel flow will be available to each operating engine if a go-around is necessary. In the case of single-engine operation, operate from the fuller tank, attempting to have a little more fuel in the wing on the side with the operating engine prior to descent. On all mUlti-engine airplanes equipped with wing tip fuel tanks, the tip tanks are the main fuel tanks on the .tank selector valve controls. Refer to Supplement 12 of this Pilot Safety and Warning Supplements Manual and the applicable airplane operating handbook. Reissue - 1 June 1998 3/(4 blank) •••••• I; PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AIRFRAME ICING 7 AIRFRAME ICING P.~· Pilots should monitor weather conditions while flying and should be alert to ~f(' conditions which might lead to icing. Icing conditions should be avoided when possible, even if the airplane is certified and approved for flight into known icing areas. A climb normally is the best ice avoidance action to take. Alternatives are a course reversal or a descent to warmer air. If icing conditions are encountered inadvertently, immediate corrective action is required. FLIGHT INTO KNOWN ICING Flight into known icing is the intentional flight into ICing conditions that are known to exist. Icing conditions exist anytime the indicated OAT (outside air temperature) is + 1Q°C or below, or the RAT (ram air temperature) is + 10°C or below, and visible moisture in any form is present. Any airplane that is not specifically certified for flight into known iCing conditions, is prohibited by regulations from doing so. Ice accumulations significantly alter the shape of the airfoil and increase the weight of the aircraft. Ice accumulations on the aircraft will increase stall speeds and alter the speeds for optimum performance. Flight at· high angles of attack (low airspeed) can result in ice buildup on the underside of wings and the horizontal tail aft of the areas protected by boots or leading edge anti-ice systems. Trace or light amounts of icing on the horizontal tail can significantly alter airfoil characteristics, which will affect stability and control of the aircraft. Inflight ice protection equipment is not designed to remove ice, snow, or frost accumulations on a parked airplane sufficiently enough to ensure a safe takeoff or subsequent flight. Other means (such as a heated hangar or approved deiCing solutions) must be employed to ensure that all wing, tail, control, propeller, windshield, static port surfaces and fuel vents are free of ice, snow, and frost accumulations, and that there are no internal accumulations of ice or debris in the control surfaces, engine intakes, brakes, pitot-static system ports, and fuel vents prior to takeoff. AIRPLANES CERTIFIED FOR FLIGHT INTO KNOWN ICING An airplane certified for flight into known icing conditions must have all required FAA approved equipment installed and fully operational. Certain airplanes have a flight into known icing equipment package available which, if installed in its entirety and completely operational, allows intentional penetration of areas of known icing conditions as reported in weather sequences or by PIREPS. Reissue - 1 June 1998 1 7 AIRFRAME ICING PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS This known iCing package is designed specifically for the airplane to provide adequate in-flight protection during normally encountered icing conditions produced by moisture-laden clouds. It will not provide total protection under Isevere conditions such as those which exist in areas of freezing rain, nor will it ' necessarily provide complete protection for continuous operation in extremely ~ widespread areas of heavy cloud moisture content. The installed equipment should be used to protect the airplane from ice while seeking a different altitude or routing where ice does not exist. During all operations, the pilot must exercise good judgement and be prepared to alter his flight if conditions exceed the capacity of the ice protection equipment or if any component of this equipment fails. The airplane's operating handbook will indicate the required equipment for intentional flight into known icing conditions. Such equipment may include: wing leading edge deice/anti-ice system, vertical and horizontal stabilizer leading edge deice/anti-ice system, propeller deice/anti-ice system, windshield anti-ice, heated pitot tube, heated static ports and fuel vents, heated stall warning vane/transducer or optional angle-of-attack lift sensor vane, ice detector light(s), and increased capacity electrical and vacuum systems. If there is any doubt whether the airplane is certified or has all the required equipment, the pilot should assume that the airplane is not certified for flight into known icing and avoid any encounters with areas of icing. KINDS OF ICING Airframe icing is a major hazard. It is at its worst when the supercooled (liquid below freezing temperature) water droplets are large and plentiful. Droplets of this type are usually found in cumulus clouds and are the cause of "clear ice". Clear ice is transparent ice deposited in layers, and may be either smooth or rough. This ice coats more of the wing than "rime ice" because the droplets flow back from the leading edge over the upper and lower wing surface before freezing, and the rate of accumulation is higher. Rime ice is an opaque, granular, and rough deposit of ice that is usually encountered in stratus clouds. Small supercooled droplets freeze instantly when struck by the leading edges of the airplane. Rime ice can quickly change the drag characteristics of the airplane. Under some conditions, a large "double horn" buildup on the leading edges can occur which drastically alters the airfoil shape. Altitude changes usually work well as an avoidance strategy for rime ice. In colder temperatures, these types of supercooled water droplets quickly convert to ice crystals. • Icing in precipitation comes from freezing rain or drizzle which falls from •..• warmer air aloft to colder air below. This results in a very rapid buildup of clear ice, and must be avoided by all means available to the pilot. 2 " Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 7 -AIRFRAME ICING If it is snowing, the problem is not so much the snow sticking to the airplane as the icing caused by the supercooled water droplets in the clouds from whiGh the snow is falling. The amount of ice will depend upon cloud saturation. Pilots should report all icing conditions to ATC/FSS, and if operating under IFR conditions, request new routing or altitude if icing will be a hazard. Be sure to give type of airplane when reporting iCing. The following describe how to report icing conditions: 1. Trace - Ice becomes visible. Rate of accumulation is slightly greater than the rate of sublimation. Anti-ice equipment must be on and deice equipment mayor may not be required. 2. Light - The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is prolonged in this environment (over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing equipment and continuous use of anti-icing equipment removes/prevents accumulation. 3. Moderate - The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment and flight diversion is necessary. 4. Severe - The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate flight diversion is necessary. RESULTS OF ICING Airplane performance can be severely reduced by ice accumulation. Accumulation of 1/2 inch of ice on the leading edges of the wings and empennage can cause a large loss in rate of climb, a cruise speed reduction of up to 30 KIAS, as well as a significant buffet and stall speed increase. Even if the airplane is certified for flight into known icing and the equipment is working properly, ice remaining on unprotected areas of the airplane can cause large performance losses. With one inch of residual ice accumulation, these losses can double, or even triple. Ice accumulation also will increase airplane weight. INADVERTENT ICING ENCOUNTER Flight into icing conditions is not recommended. However, an inadvertent encounter with these conditions is possible. The following are things to consider doing if inadvertent icing is experienced. These items are not intended to replace procedures described in any operating handbook. Instead, this list has been generated to familiarize pilots of older model Cessnas with guidelines they can use in the event of an inadvertent icing condition. Th.e best procedure is a change of altitude, or course reversal to escape the iCin-g conditions. Reissue - 1 June 1998 3 7 AIRFRAME ICING PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 1. Turn pitot heat, stall warning heat, propeller deice/anti-ice, and windshield anti-ice switches ON (if installed). 2. Change altitude (usually climb) or turn back to obtain an outside air temperature that is less conducive to icing. 3. Increase power as necessary to maintain cruise airspeed and· to minimize ice accumulation. Maintain a minimum indicated airspeed of Vy + 10 KIAS until assured that all ice is off the airframe. 4. Turn cabin heat and defroster controls full on and open defrost control to obtain maximum windshield defroster effectiveness. 5. Increase engine speed to minimize ice buildup on propeller blades. If excessive vibration is noted, momentarily reduce engine speed with the propeller control, and then rapidly move the control full forward. Cycling the RPM flexes the propeller blades and high RPM increases centrifugal force, causing ice to shed more readily. 6. Watch for signs of induction air filter ice. Regain manifold pressure by increasing the throttle setting and/or selecting alternate air or carburetor heat. If ice accumulates on the intake filter (requiring alternate air), a decrease of manifold pressure will be experienced, and the mixture should be adjusted as required. 7. If icing conditions are unavoidable, plan a landing at the nearest airport. In the event of an extremely rapid ice buildup, select a suitable "off airport" landing site. 8. Ice accumulation of 1/4 inch or more on the wing leading edges may require significantly higher power and a higher approach and landing speed, and result in a higher stall speed and longer landing roll. 9. If practical, open the window and, scrape ice from a portion of the windshield for visibility in the landing approach. ~~ 10. Approach with reduced flap extension to ensure adequate elevator effectiveness in the approach and landing. 11. Avoid a slow and high flare-out. 12. Missed approaches should be avoided whenever possible, because of severely reduced climb capability. However, if a go-around is mandatory, make the decision much earlier in the approach than normal. Apply maximum power while retracting the flaps slowly in small increments (if extended). Retract the landing gear after immediate obstacles are cleared. Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS WEATHER ALERTNESS 8 WEATHER Most pilots pay particularly close attention to the business of flying when they are intentionally operating in instrument weather conditions. On the other hand, unlimited visibility tends to encourage a sense of security which may not be justified. The pilot should be alert to the potential of weather hazards, and prepared if these hazards are encountered on every flight. VFR JUDGMENT Published distance from clouds and visability regulations establish the minimums for VFR flight. The pilot who uses even greater margins exercises good judgment. VFR operation in class D airspace, when the official visibility is 3 miles or greater, is not prohibited, but good judgment would dictate that VFR pilots keep out of the approach area under marginal conditions. Precipitation reduces forward visibility. Although it is perfectly legal to cancel an IFR flight plan whenever the pilot feels he can proceed VFR, it is usually a good practice to continue IFR into a terminal area until the destination airport is in sight. While conducting simulated instrument flights, pilots should ensure that the weather provides adequate visibility to the safety pilot. Greater visibility is advisable when flying in or near a busy airway or close to an airport. IFR JUDGMENT The following tips are not necessarily based on Federal Aviation Regulations, but are offered as recommendations for pilot consideration. They do, however, address those elements of IFR flight that are common causes of accidents. 1. All pilots should have an annual IFR proficiency check, regardless of IFR hours flown. 2. For the first 25 hours of pilot-in-command time in airplane type, increase ILS visibility minimums and raise non precision approach minimums. 3. An operating autopilot or wing leveler is strongly recommended for single pilot IFR operations. 4. Do not depart on an IFR flight without an independent power source for attitude and heading systems, and an emergency power source for Reissue - 1 June 1998 1 8 WEATHER PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS at least one VHF communica.tions radio, or a hand-held communications radio. 5. Be sure the airplane has enough fuel to fly to the destination with a headwind calculated at 125 percent of the forecast wind, and a • tailwind calculated at 75 percent of forecast wind. Also, include • enough fuel to miss the approach at the destination airport, climb to cruise altitude' and fly an approach at an alternate airport, plus 45 minutesoffuel for low altitude holding. 6. The IFR takeoff runway should meet the criteria of the accelerate- stop/go distances for that particular twin-engine airplane, or 200 percent of the distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle for a single'. 7. Do not enter an area of embedded thunderstorms without on-board weather detection equipment (radar and/or Stormscope,.M) and unless cloud bases are at least 2000 feet above the highest terrain, terrain is essentially level, and VFR can be maintained. Avoid all cells by five miles, and severe storms by 20 miles. 8. Do not enter possible icing conditions unless all deice and anti-ice systems are fully operational, or the weather provides at least a 1000- foot ceiling and three miles visibility for the entire route over level terrain, and the surface temperatures are greater than 5°C. 9. Adhere to weather minimums, missed approach procedures and requirements for visual contact with the runway environment. If an approach is missed, with the runway not in sight at the appropriate time because of weather conditions, do not attempt another approach ,':' unless there is a valid reason to believe there has been a substantial , improvement in the weather. 10. Observe the minimum runway requirement for an IFR landing. The minimum IFR runway length for propeller driven airplanes should be considered 200 percent of maximum landing distance. Increase these distances 90 percent for a wet runway and 150 percent for ice on the runway. 11. Make a missed approach if speed and configuration are not stable inside the middle marker or on non precision final, or if the touchdown aiming pOint will be missed by more than 1000 feet. If an approach is missed because of pilot technique, evaluate the reasons and options before attempting another approach. 12. Use supplemental oxygen above a cabin altitude of 5000 feet at night, and above 10,000 feet during the day. WIND The keys to successfully counteracting the effects of wind are proficiency, understanding the wind response characteristics of the airplane, and a thoughtful approach to the operation. Some operating handbooks indicate a." maximum demonstrated crosswind velocity, but this value is not considered to be limiting. There is an ultimate limit on wind for safe operation, which varies with the airplane and pilot. The lighter the airplane and the lower the stalling speed, the less wind it will take to exceed this limit. The wayan airplane rests 2~ Reissue - 1 June 1998 PILOT SAFETY AND WARNING SUPPLEMENTS 8 WEATHER on its landing gear affects handling characteristics. If it· sits nose down, the wing will be unloaded and the airplane will handle better in wind than an airplane which sits in a nose up attitude, creating a positive angle of attack. For the latter type, the full weight of the airplane cannot be on the wheels as the airplane is facing into the wind. Airplanes with these characteristics cause pilots to work harder to keep the airplane under control. CROSSWIND While an airplane is moving on the ground, it is affected by the direction and velocity of the wind. When taxiing into the wind, the control effectiveness is increased by the speed of the wind. The tendency of an airplane to weathervane is the greatest while taxiing directly crosswind, which makes this maneuver difficult. When taxiing in crosswind, speed and use of brakes should be held to a minimum and all controls should be utilized to maintain directional control and balance (see Crosswind Taxi Diagram, Figure 1). Takeoffs into strong crosswinds are normally performed with the minimum flap setting nece