Pilot’s Operating Handbook And FAA Approved Airplane Flight Manual (abridged for KCN Aero Club)

Emergency Landing Without Engine Power................................................. 3-4 Precautionary Landing With Engine Power.................................................. 3-4 Ditching ........................................................................................................ 3-4 Fires ...................................................................................................................... 3-5 During Start On Ground ............................................................................... 3-5 Engine Fire In Flight..................................................................................... 3-5 Electrical Fire In Flight................................................................................. 3-5 Cabin Fire ..................................................................................................... 3-6 Wing Fire...................................................................................................... 3-6 Icing...................................................................................................................... 3-6 Inadvertent Icing Encounter.......................................................................... 3-6 Landing With A Flat Main Tire ........................................................................... 3-7 Electrical Power Supply System Malfunctions..................................................... 3-7 Ammeter Shows Excessive Rate Of Charge (Full Scale Deflection)............ 3-7 Low-Voltage Light Illuminates During Flight (Ammeter Indicates Discharge)3-7 AMPLIFIED PROCEDURES Engine Failures ..................................................................................................... 3-8 Forced Landings ................................................................................................... 3-8 Landing without elevator control.......................................................................... 3-9 Fires ...................................................................................................................... 3-9 Emergency Operation In Clouds (Vacuum System Failure)................................. 3-9 Executing A 1800 Turn In Clouds ................................................................ 3-9 Emergency Descent Through Clouds.......................................................... 3-10 Recovery From A Spiral Dive .................................................................... 3-10 Inadvertent Flight Into Icing Conditions............................................................. 3-10 Spins ................................................................................................................... 3-11 Rough Engine Operation Or Loss Of Power....................................................... 3-11 Carburetor Icing.......................................................................................... 3-11 Spark Plug Fouling ..................................................................................... 3-11 Magneto Malfunction ................................................................................. 3-11 Low Oil Pressure ........................................................................................ 3-12 Electrical Power Supply System Malfunctions................................................... 3-12 Excessive Rate of Charge ........................................................................... 3-12 Insufficient Rate of Charge......................................................................... 3-12 Page 6 of 63 INTRODUCTION Section 3 provides checklist and amplified procedures for coping with emergencies that may occur. Emergencies caused by airplane or engine malfunctions are extremely rare if proper preflight inspections and maintenance are practiced. Enroute weather emergencies can be minimized or eliminated by careful flight planning and good judgment when unexpected weather is encountered. However, should an emergency arise, the basic guidelines described in this section should be considered and applied as necessary to correct the problem.. AIRSPEEDS FOR EMERGENCY OPERATION Engine Failure After Takeoff....................................................................... 60 KIAS Maneuvering Speed: 1670 Lbs .................................................................................................... 104 KIAS 1500 Lbs ...................................................................................................... 98 KIAS 1350 Lbs ...................................................................................................... 93 KIAS Maximum Glide........................................................................................... 60 KIAS Precautionary Landing With Engine Power................................................. 55 KIAS Landing Without Engine Power: Wing Flaps Up............................................................................................. 65 KIAS Wing Flaps Down........................................................................................ 60 KIAS OPERATIONAL CHECKLISTS ENGINE FAILURES ENGINE FAILURE DURING TAKEOFF RUN 1. Throttle -- IDLE. 2. Brakes -- APPLY. 3. Wing Flaps -- RETRACT. 4. Mixture -- IDLE CUT-OFF. 5. Ignition Switch -- OFF. 6. Master Switch -- OFF. ENGINE FAILURE IMMEDIATELY AFTER TAKEOFF 1. Airspeed -- 60 KIAS. 2. Mixture -- IDLE CUT-OFF. 3. Fuel Shutoff Valve -- OFF. 4. Ignition Switch -- OFF. 5. Wing Flaps -- AS REQUIRED. 6. Master Switch -- OFF. ENGINE FAILURE DURING FLIGHT 1. Airspeed -- 60 KIAS. 2. Carburetor Heat -- ON. 3. Primer -- IN and LOCKED. 4. Fuel Shutoff Valve -- ON. 5. Mixture -- RICH. 6. Ignition Switch -- BOTH (or START if propeller is stopped). FORCED LANDINGS EMERGENCY LANDING WITHOUT ENGINE POWER 1. Airspeed –65 KIAS (flaps up 60 KIAS (flaps DOWN). 2. Mixture -- IDLE CUT-OFF. 3. Fuel Shutoff Valve -- OFF. 4. Ignition Switch -- OFF. Page 7 of 63 5. Wing Flaps -- AS REQUIRED (30° recommended). 6. Master Switch -- OFF. 7. Doors -- UNLATCH PRIOR TO TOUCHDOWN. 8. Touchdown -- SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW. 9. Brakes -- APPLY HEAVILY. PRECAUTIONARY LANDING WITH ENGINE POWER 1. Airspeed -- 60 KIAS. 2. Wing Flaps -- 20°. 3. Selected Field -- FLY OVER, noting terrain and obstructions, then retract flaps upon reaching a safe altitude and airspeed. 4. Radio and Electrical Switches -- OFF. 5. Wing Flaps -- 30° (on final approach). 6. Airspeed -- 55 KIAS. 7. Master Switch -- OFF. 8. Doors -- UNLATCH PRIOR TO TOUCHDOWN. 9. Touchdown -- SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW. 10. Ignition Switch -- OFF. 11. Brakes -- APPLY HEAVILY. DITCHING 1. Radio - - TRANSMIT MAYDAY on 121.5 MHz, giving location and intentions and SQUAWK 7700 if transponder is installed. 2. Heavy Objects (in baggage area) -- SECURE OR JETTISON. 3. Approach -- High Winds, Heavy Seas -- INTO THE WIND.; Light Winds, Heavy Swells -- PARALLEL TO SWELLS. 4. Wing Flaps -- 30°. 5. Power -- ESTABLISH 300 FT/MIN DESCENT AT 55 KIAS. 6. Cabin Doors -- UNLATCH. 7. Touchdown -- LEVEL ATTITUDE AT 300 FT/MIN DESCENT. 8. Face -- CUSHION at touchdown with folded coat. 9. Airplane -- EVACUATE through cabin doors. If necessary, open windows and flood cabin to equalize pressure so doors can be opened. 10. Life Vests and Raft -- INFLATE. FIRES DURING START ON GROUND 1. Cranking—CONTINUE ,to get a start which would suck the flames and accumulated fuel through the carburetor and into the engine. If engine starts: 2. Power -- 1700 RPM for a few minutes. 3. Engine -- SHUTDOWN and inspect for damage. If engine fails to start: 4. Cranking -- CONTINUE in an effort to obtain a start. 5. Fire Extinguisher - - OBTAIN (have ground attendants obtain if not installed). 6. Engine -- SECURE. . Master Switch -- OFF. . Ignition Switch -- OFF. . Fuel Shutoff Valve -- OFF. 10. Fire – EXTINGUISH using fire extinguisher ,wool blanket ,or dirt. 11. Fire Damage -- INSPECT, repair damage or replace damaged components or wiring before conducting another flight. ENGINE FIRE IN FLIGHT Mixture -- IDLE CUT-OFF. Fuel Shutoff Valve -- OFF. Master Switch -- OFF. Cabin Heat and Air -- OFF (except wing root vents). Airspeed -- 85 KIAS (If fire is not extinguished, increase glide speed to find an airspeed which will provide an incombustible mixture). Forced Landing -- EXECUTE (as described in Emergency Landing Without Engine Power). Page 8 of 63 ELECTRICAL FIRE IN FLIGHT 1. Master Switch -- OFF. 2. All Other Switches (except ignition switch) -- OFF. 3. Vents/Cabin Air/Heat -- CLOSED. 4. Fire Extinguisher -- ACTIVATE (if available) WARNING After discharging an extinguisher within a closed cabin, ventilate the cabin. 5. If fire appears out and electrical power is necessary for continuance of flight: 6. Master Switch -- ON. 7. Circuit Breakers -- CHECK for faulty circuit, do not reset. 8. Radio/Electrical Switches -- ON one at a time, with delay after each until short circuit is localized. 9. Vents/ Cabin Air/ Heat -- OPEN when it is ascertained that fire is completely extinguished. CABIN FIRE 1. Master Switch -- OFF. 2. Vents/Cabin Air/Heat -- CLOSED (to avoid drafts). 3. Fire Extinguisher -- ACTIVATE (if available). WARNING After discharging an extinguisher within a closed cabin, ventilate the cabin. 4. Land the airplane as soon as possible to inspect for damage, WING FIRE Navigation Light Switch -- OFF. Strobe Light Switch (if installed) -- OFF. Pitot Heat Switch (if installed) -- OFF. NOTE Perform a sideslip to keep the flames away from the fuel tank and cabin, and land as soon as possible, with flaps retracted. ICING INADVERTENT ICING ENCOUNTER Turn pitot heat switch ON (if installed). Turn back or change altitude to obtain an outside air temperature that is less conducive to icing. Pull cabin heat control full out to obtain maximum defroster air temperature. For greater air flow at reduced temperatures, adjust the cabin air control as required. Open the throttle to increase engine speed and minimize ice buildup on propeller blades. Watch for signs of carburetor air filter ice and apply carburetor heat as required. An unexpected loss in engine speed could be caused by carburetor ice or air intake filter ice. Lean the mixture for maximum RPM, if carburetor heat is used continuously. Plan a landing at the nearest airport. With an extremely rapid ice build-up, select a suitable "off airport" landing site. With an ice accumulation of 1/ 4 inch or more on the wing leading edges, be prepared for significantly higher stall speed. Leave wing flaps retracted. With a severe ice build-up on the horizontal tail, the change in wing wake airflow direction caused by wing flap extension could result in a loss of elevator effectiveness. Open left window and, if practical, scrape ice from a portion of the windshield for visibility in the landing approach. Perform a landing approach using a forward slip, if necessary, for improved visibility. Approach at 65 to 75 KIAS depending upon the amount of ice accumulation. Perform a landing in level attitude. LANDING WITH A FLAT MAIN TIRE 1. Wing Flaps -- AS DESIRED. 2. Approach -- NORMAL. Page 9 of 63 3. Touchdown—GOOD TIRE FIRST hold airplane off flat tire as long as possible with aileron control. ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS AMMETER SHOWS EXCESSIVE RATE OF CHARGE (Full Scale Deflection) 1. Alternator -- OFF. 2. Nonessential Electrical Equipment -- OFF. 3. Flight -- TERMINATE as soon as practical. LOW-VOLTAGE LIGHT ILLUMINATES DURING FLIGHT (Ammeter Indicates Discharge) NOTE Illumination of the low-voltage light may occur during low RPM conditions with an electrical load on the system such as during a low RPM taxi. Under these conditions, the light will go out at higher RPM. The master switch need not be recycled since an over-voltage condition has not occurred to de-activate the alternator system. 1. Radios -- OFF. 2. Master Switch -- OFF (both sides). 3. Master Switch -- ON. 4. Low-Voltage Light -- CHECK OFF. 5. Radios -- ON. If low-voltage light illuminates again: 6. Alternator -- OFF. 7. Nonessential Radio and Electrical Equipment -- OFF. 8. Flight -- TERMINATE as soon as practical. Page 10 of 63 AMPLIFIED PROCEDURES ENGINE FAILURE If an engine failure occurs during the takeoff run, the most important thing to do is stop the airplane on the remaining runway. Those extra items on the checklist will provide added safety after a failure of this type. Prompt lowering of the nose to maintain airspeed and establish a glide attitude is the first response to an engine failure after takeoff. In most cases, the landing should be planned straight ahead with only small changes in direction to avoid obstructions. Altitude and airspeed are seldom sufficient to execute a 1800 gliding turn necessary to return to the runway. The checklist procedures assume that adequate time exists to secure the fuel and ignition systems prior to touchdown. After an engine failure in flight, the best glide speed as shown in figure 3-1 should be established as quickly as possible. While gliding toward a suitable landing area, an effort should be made to identify the cause of the failure. If time permits, an engine restart should be attempted as shown in the checklist. If the engine cannot be restarted, a forced landing without power must be completed. FORCED LANDINGS If all attempts to restart the engine fail and a forced landing is, imminent, select a suitable field and prepare for the landing as discussed under the ”Emergency Landing Without Engine Power” checklist. Before attempting an "off airport" landing with engine power available, one should fly over the landing area at a safe but low altitude to inspect the terrain for obstructions and surface conditions, proceeding as discussed under the Precautionary Landing With Engine Power checklist. Prepare for ditching by securing or jettisoning heavy objects located in the baggage area and collect folded coats for protection of occupants' face at touchdown. Transmit Mayday message on 121.5 MHz giving location and intentions, and squawk 7700 if a transponder is installed. Avoid a landing flare because of difficulty in judging height over a water surface. LANDING WITHOUT ELEVATOR CONTROL Trim for horizontal flight (with an airspeed of approximately 55 KIAS and flaps lowered to 200) by using throttle and elevator trim controls. Then do not change the elevator trim control setting; control the glide angle by adjusting power exclusively. At flareout, the nose-down moment resulting from power reduction is an adverse factor and the airplane may hit on the nose wheel. Consequently, at flareout, the trim control should be set at the full nose-up position and the power adjusted so that the airplane will rotate to the horizontal attitude for touchdown. Close the throttle at touchdown. FIRES Page 11 of 63 Although engine fires are extremely rare in flight, the steps of the appropriate checklist should be followed if one is encountered. After completion of this procedure, execute a forced landing. Do not attempt to restart the engine. The initial indication of an electrical fire is usually the odor of burning insulation. The checklist for this problem should result in elimination of the fire. EMERGENCY OPERATION IN CLOUDS (Vacuum System Failure) In the event of a vacuum system failure during flight, the directional indicator and attitude indicator will be disabled, and the pilot will have to rely on the turn coordinator if he inadvertently flies into clouds. The following instructions assume that only the electrically- powered turn coordinator is operative, and that the pilot is not completely proficient in instrument flying. EXECUTING A 180° TURN IN CLOUDS Upon inadvertently entering the clouds, an immediate plan should be made to turn back as follows: 1. Note the compass heading. 2. Note the time of the minute hand and observe the position of the sweep second hand on the clock. 3. When the sweep second hand indicates the nearest half-minute, initiate a standard rate left turn, holding the turn coordinator symbolic airplane wing opposite the lower left index mark for 60 seconds. Then roll back to level flight by leveling the miniature airplane. 4. Check accuracy of the turn by observing the compass heading which should be the reciprocal of the original heading. 5. If necessary, adjust heading primarily with skidding motions rather than rolling motions so that the compass will read more accurately. 6. Maintain altitude and airspeed by cautious application of elevator control. Avoid overcontrolling by keeping the hands off the control wheel as much as possible and steering only with rudder. EMERGENCY DESCENT THROUGH CLOUDS If conditions preclude reestablishment of VFR flight by a 1801 turn, a descent through a cloud deck to VFR conditions may be appropriate. If possible, obtain radio clearance for an emergency descent through clouds. To guard against a spiral dive, choose an easterly or westerly heading to minimize compass card swings due to changing bank angles. In addition, keep hands off the control wheel and steer a straight course with rudder control by monitoring the turn coordinator. Occasionally check the compass heading and make minor corrections to hold an approximate course. Before descending into the clouds, set up a stabilized let-down condition as follows: 1. Apply full rich mixture. 2. Use full carburetor heat. 3. Reduce power to set up a 500 to 800 ft/min rate of descent. 4. Adjust the elevator trim for a stabilized descent at 70 KIAS. 5. Keep hands off control wheel. 6. 6Monitor turn coordinator and make corrections by rudder alone. 7. Check trend of compass card movement and make cautious corrections with rudder to stop turn. 8. Upon breaking out of clouds, resume normal cruising flight. RECOVERY FROM A SPIRAL DIVE If a spiral is encountered, proceed as follows: 1. Close the throttle. 2. Stop the turn by using coordinated aileron and rudder control to align the symbolic airplane in the turn coordinator with the horizon reference line. 3. Cautiously apply elevator backpressure to slowly reduce the airspeed to 70 KIAS. 4. Adjust the elevator trim control to maintain a 70 KIAS glide. 5. Keep hands off the control wheel, using rudder control to hold a straight heading. 6. Apply carburetor heat. 7. Clear engine occasionally, but avoid using enough power to disturb the trimmed glide. 8. Upon breaking out of clouds, resume normal cruising flight. INADVERTENT FLIGHT INTO ICING CONDITIONS Flight into icing conditions is prohibited. An inadvertent encounter with these conditions can best be handled using the checklist procedures. The best procedure, of course. is to turn back or change altitude to escape icing conditions. SPINS Should an inadvertent spin occur, the following recovery procedure Page 12 of 63 should be used: 1. PLACE AILERONS IN NEUTRAL POSITION. 2. RETARD THROTTLE TO IDLE POSITION. 3. APPLY AND HOLD FULL RUDDER OPPOSITE TO THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION. 4. JUST AFTER THE RUDDER REACHES THE STOP, MOVE THE CONTROL WHEEL BRISKLY FORWARD FAR ENOUGH TO BREAK THE STALL. Full down elevator may be required at aft center of gravity loadings to assure optimum recoveries. 5. HOLD THESE CONTROL INPUTS UNTIL ROTATION STOPS. Premature relaxation of the control inputs may extend the recovery. 6. AS ROTATION STOPS, NEUTRALIZE RUDDER, AND MAKE A SMOOTH RECOVERY FROM THE RESULTING DIVE. NOTE If disorientation precludes a visual determination of the direction of rotation, the symbolic airplane in the turn coordinator may be referred to for this information. For additional information on spins and spin recovery, see the discussion under SPINS in Normal Procedures (Section 4). ROUGH ENGINE OPERATION OR LOSS OF POWER CARBURETOR ICING A gradual loss of RPM and eventual engine roughness may result from the formation of carburetor ice. To clear the ice, apply full throttle and pull the carburetor heat knob full out until the engine runs smoothly; then remove carburetor heat and readjust the throttle. If conditions require the continued use of carburetor heat in cruise flight, use the minimum amount of heat necessary to prevent ice from forming and lean the mixture slightly for smoothest engine operation. SPARK PLUG FOULING A slight engine roughness in flight may be caused by one or more spark plugs becoming fouled by carbon or lead deposits. This may be verified by turning the ignition switch momentarily from BOTH to either L or R position. An obvious power loss in single ignition operation is evidence of spark plug or magneto trouble. Assuming that spark plugs are the more likely cause, lean the mixture to the recommended lean setting for cruising flight. If the problem does not clear up in several minutes, determine if a richer mixture setting will produce smoother operation. If not, proceed to the nearest airport for repairs using the BOTH position of the ignition switch unless extreme roughness dictates the use of a single ignition position. MAGNETO MALFUNCTION A sudden engine roughness or misfiring is usually evidence of magneto problems. Switching from BOTH to either L or R ignition switch position will identify which magneto is malfunctioning. Select different power settings and enrich the mixture to determine if continued operation on BOTH magnetos is practicable. If not, switch to the good magneto and proceed to the nearest airport for repairs- LOW OIL PRESSURE If low oil pressure is accompanied by normal oil temperature, there is a possibility the oil pressure gage or relief valve is malfunctioning. A leak in the line to the gage is not necessarily cause for an immediate precautionary landing because an orifice in this line will prevent a sudden loss of oil from the engine sump. However, a landing at the nearest airport would be advisable to inspect the source of trouble. If a total loss of oil pressure is accompanied by a rise in oil temperature, there is good reason to suspect an engine failure is imminent. Reduce engine power immediately and select a suitable forced landing field. Use only the minimum power required to reach the desired touchdown spot. ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS Malfunctions in the electrical power supply system can be detected by periodic monitoring of the ammeter and low-voltage warning light; however, the cause of these malfunctions is usually difficult to determine. A broken alternator drive belt or wiring is most likely the cause of alternator failures, although other factors could cause the problem. A damaged or improperly adjusted alternator control unit can also cause malfunctions. Problems of this nature constitute an electrical emergency and should be dealt with immediately. Electrical power malfunctions usually fall into two categories: excessive rate of charge and insufficient rate of charge. The paragraphs below describe the recommended remedy for each situation. EXCESSIVE RATE OF CHARGE Page 13 of 63 After engine starting and heavy electrical usage at low engine speeds (such as extended taxiing) the battery condition will be low enough to accept above normal charging during the initial part of a flight. However, after thirty minutes of cruising flight, the ammeter should be indicating less than two needle widths of charging current. If the charging rate were to remain above this value on a long flight, the battery would overheat and evaporate the electrolyte at an excessive rate. Electronic components in the electrical system can be adversely affected by higher than normal voltage. The alternator control unit includes an over-voltage sensor that normally will automatically shut down the alternator if the charge voltage reaches approximately 31.5 volts. If the over-voltage sensor malfunctions or is improperly adjusted, as evidenced by an excessive rate of charge shown on the ammeter, the alternator should be turned off, nonessential electrical equipment turned off and the flight terminated as soon as practical. INSUFFICIENT RATE OF CHARGE NOTE Illumination of the low-voltage light and ammeter discharge indications may occur during low RPM conditions with an electrical load on the system, such as during a low RPM taxi. Under these conditions, the light will go out at higher RPM. The master switch need not be recycled since an over-voltage condition has not occurred to de-activate the alternator system. If the over-voltage sensor should shut down the alternator, a discharge rate will be shown on the ammeter followed by illumination of the low voltage warning light. Since this may be a "nuisance" trip-out, an attempt should be made to reactivate the alternator system. To do this, turn the radios off, then turn both sides of the master switch off and then on again. If the problem no longer exists, normal alternator charging will resume and the low-voltage light will go off. The radios may then be turned back on. If the light illuminates again, a malfunction is confirmed. In this event, the flight should be terminated and/or the current drain on the battery minimized because the battery can supply the electrical system for only a limited period of time. If the emergency occurs at night, power must be conserved for later use of the landing light and flaps during landing. Page 14 of 63 SECTION 4 NORMAL PROCEDURES Table of Contents Page Introduction .......................................................................................................... 4-3 Speed for Normal Operation................................................................................. 4-3 Checklist Procedures Preflight Inspection............................................................................................... 4-4 Cabin..................................................................................................... 4-4 Empennage ........................................................................................... 4-5 Right Wing, Trailing Edge.................................................................... 4-5 Right Wing............................................................................................ 4-5 Nose ...................................................................................................... 4-5 Left Wing.............................................................................................. 4-5 Left Wing, Trailing Edge ...................................................................... 4-6 Before Starting Engine ......................................................................................... 4-6 Starting Engine (Temperatures Above Freezing).................................................. 4-6 Before Takeoff...................................................................................................... 4-6 Takeoff .............................................................................................................. 4-7 Normal Takeoff..................................................................................... 4-7 Short Field Takeoff............................................................................... 4-7 Enroute Climb ...................................................................................................... 4-7 Cruise .............................................................................................................. 4-7 Before Landing ..................................................................................................... 4-7 Landing .............................................................................................................. 4-7 Normal Landing.................................................................................... 4-8 Short Field Landing .............................................................................. 4-8 Balked Landing..................................................................................... 4-8 After Landing ....................................................................................................... 4-8 Securing Airplane ................................................................................................. 4-8 Amplified Procedures Starting Engine (Temperatures Above Freezing).................................................. 4-8 Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................................. 4-10 Before Takeoff.................................................................................................... 4-11 Warm-Up ............................................................................................ 4-11 Magneto Check................................................................................... 4-11 Alternator Check................................................................................. 4-11 Takeoff ............................................................................................................ 4-11 Power Check....................................................................................... 4-11 Wing Flap Settings.............................................................................. 4-12 Crosswind Takeoff.............................................................................. 4-12 Enroute Climb .................................................................................................... 4-12 Cruise ............................................................................................................ 4-13 Fuel Savings Procedures For Flight Training Operations ................................... 4-14 Stalls ............................................................................................................ 4-14 Spins ............................................................................................................ 4-14 Landing ............................................................................................................ 4-16 Short Field Landing ............................................................................ 4-16 Crosswind Landing ............................................................................. 4-16 Balked Landing................................................................................... 4-16 Cold Weather Operation ..................................................................................... 4-16 Noise Abatement ................................................................................................ 4-18 Page 15 of 63 INTRODUCTION Section 4 provides checklist and amplified procedures for the conduct of normal operation. Normal procedures associated with optional systems can be found in Section 9. SPEEDS FOR NORMAL OPERATION Unless otherwise noted, the following speeds are based on a maximum weight of 1670 pounds and may be used for any lesser weight. (All speeds in KIAS) Takeoff: Normal Climb Out ............................................................................................ 65-75 Short Field Takeoff. Flaps 101, Speed at 50 Feet ..................................................54 Climb, Flaps Up: Normal.............................................................................................................. 70-80 Best Rate of Climb, Sea Level................................................................................67 Best Rate of Climb, 10,000 Feet.............................................................................61 Best Angle of Climb, Sea Level thru 10,000 Feet ..................................................55 Landing Approach: Normal Approach, Flaps Up............................................................................. 60-70 Normal Approach, Flaps 30.............................................................................. 55-65 Short Field Approach, Flaps 30 ..............................................................................54 Balked Landing: Maximum Power, Flaps 20.....................................................................................55 Maximum Recommended Turbulent Air Penetration Speed: 1670 Lbs .....................................................................................................104 1500 Lbs .......................................................................................................98 1350 Lbs .......................................................................................................93 Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Velocity.............................................. 12 knots PREFLIGHT INSPECTION Visually check airplane for general condition during walk-around inspection. In cold weather, remove even small accumulations of frost, ice, or snow from wing, tail, and control surfaces. Also, make sure that control surfaces contain no internal accumulations of ice or debris. Prior to flight, check that pitot heater (if installed is warm to touch with 30 seconds with battery and pitot heat switches on. If a night flight is planned, check operation of all lights and make sure a flashlight is available. CABIN Pilot’s Operating Handbook –AVAILABLE IN THE AIRPLANE Page 16 of 63 Control Wheel Lock REMOVE Ignition Switch –OFF Avionics Master Switch – OFF Master Switch – ON WARNING When turning on the master switch, using an external power source, or pulling the propeller through by hand, treat the propeller as if the ignition switch were on. Do not stand, nor allow anyone else to stand, within the arc of the propeller, since a loose or broken wire, or a component malfunction could cause the propeller to rotate. Fuel Quantity Indicators – CHECK QUANTITY External and Interior lights – ON (if night flight is contemplated—check to ensure that all are working) Pitot Heat –ON (if flight in instrument conditions is contemplated – check to ensure that pitot tube is warm to touch within 30 seconds) Lights and pitot heat – OFF Master Switch – OFF Fuel valve – ON EMPANNAGE Rudder Gust Lock REMOVE Tail Tie –down – DISCONNECT Control Surfaces – CHECK for freedom of movement and security RIGHT WING- TRAILING EDGE 1. Aileron –CHECK freedom of movement and security RIGHT WING 1. Wing tiedown – DISCONNECT 2. Main Wheel Tire – CHECK for proper inflation, cuts, wear 3. Brake lines – CHECK for leaks 4. Fuel sump – CHECK before first flight of day, and after each refueling, drain fuel sample from sump, checking for water and other contaminants 5. Fuel Quantity – CHECK VISUALLY 6. Fuel Filler Cap --- SECURE NOSE 1. Engine Oil –4 qts minimum –5 qts maximum for flights less than 3 hours—6 qts maximum 2. Engine Oil cap --SECURE 3. Before first flight of day, and after each refueling, pull out fuel strainer knob for 4 seconds 4. Propeller and spinner – CHECK for nicks and cracks 5. Air intake – CHECK for obstructions 6. Nose wheel strut– CHECK for inflation, 7. Nose wheel tire – CHECK for inflation, cuts, wear 8. Nose tiedown -- REMOVE LEFT WING 1. Wing tiedown – DISCONNECT 2. Pitot tube –REMOVE COVER –CHECK for obstruction, damage 7. Main Wheel Tire – CHECK for proper inflation, cuts, wear 3. Brake lines – CHECK for leaks 4. Stall warning vane -- CHECK 5. Fuel sump – CHECK before first flight of day, and after each refueling, drain fuel sample from sump, checking for water and other contaminants 6. Fuel Quantity – CHECK VISUALLY 7. Fuel Filler Cap --- SECURE LEFT WING- TRAILING EDGE Aileron –CHECK freedom of movement and security Page 17 of 63 BEFORE STARTING ENGINE 1. Preflight Inspection – COMPLETE 2. Seats, Belts, Shoulder Harnesses -- ADJUST and LOCK. 3. Fuel Shutoff Valve -- ON. 4. Radios, Electrical Equipment -- OFF. 5. Brakes -- TEST and SET. 6. Circuit Breakers -- CHECK IN. STARTING ENGINE (Temperatures Above Freezing) Mixture -- RICH. Carburetor Heat -- COLD. Prime -- AS REQUIRED (up to 3 strokes). Throttle -- OPEN 1/2 INCH. Propeller Area -- CLEAR. Master Switch -- ON. Ignition Switch -- START (release when engine starts). Throttle -- ADJUST for 1000 RPM or less. Oil Pressure -- CHECK. BEFORE TAKEOFF 1. Parking Brake -- SET. 2. Cabin Doors -- CLOSED and LATCHED. 3. Flight Controls -- FREE and CORRECT. 4. Flight Instruments SET. 5. Fuel Shutoff Valve ON. 6. Mixture -- RICH (below 3000 feet). 7. Elevator Trim -- TAKEOFF. 8. Throttle -- 1700 RPM. . Magnetos -- CHECK (RPM drop should not exceed 125 RPM on either magneto or 50 RPM differential between magnetos). . Carburetor Heat -- CHECK (for RPM drop). . Engine Instruments and Ammeter -- CHECK. . Suction Gage -- CHECK. 13. Radios -- SET. 14. Flashing Beacon, Navigation Lights and /or Strobe Lights—ON as required. 15. Throttle Friction Lock -- ADJUST. 16. Brakes -- RELEASE. TAKEOFF NORMAL TAKEOFF 1. Wing Flaps -- 00- 100. 2. Carburetor Heat -- COLD. 3. Throttle -- FULL OPEN. 4. Elevator Control -- LIFT NOSE WHEEL at 50 KIAS. 5. Climb Speed -- 65-75 KIAS. SHORT FIELD TAKEOFF 1. Wing Flaps -- 100. 2. Carburetor Heat -- COLD. 3. Brakes -- APPLY. 4. Throttle -- FULL OPEN. 5. Mixture - - RICH (above 3000 feet, LEAN to obtain maximum RPM). 6. Brakes -- RELEASE. 7. Elevator Control -- SLIGHTLY TAIL LOW. 8. Climb Speed -- 54 KIAS (until all obstacles are cleared). 9. Wing Flaps -- RETRACT slowly after reaching 60 KIAS. ENROUTE CLIMB 1. Airspeed -- 70-80 KIAS. Page 18 of 63 NOTE If a maximum performance climb is necessary, refer to section 5 of handbook –67 KIAS at sea level, decreasing to 60 KIAS at 12,000 ft MSL 2. Throttle -- FULL OPEN. 3. Mixture—RICH below 3000 feet; LEAN for maximum RPM above 3000 feet. CRUISE Power -- 1900-2550 RPM (no more than 75%). Elevator Trim -- ADJUST. Mixture -- LEAN. BEFORE LANDING 1. Seats, Belts, Harnesses -- ADJUST and LOCK. 2. Mixture -- RICH. 3. Carburetor Heat -- ON (apply full heat before closing throttle). NORMAL LANDING 1. Airspeed -- 60-70 KIAS (flaps UP). 2. Wing Flaps -- AS DESIRED (below 85 KIAS). 3. Airspeed -- 55-65 KIAS (flaps DOWN). 4. Touchdown -- MAIN WHEELS FIRST. 5. Landing Roll -- LOWER NOSE WHEEL GENTLY. 6. Braking -- MINIMUM REQUIRED. SHORT FIELD LANDING 1. Airspeed -- 60-70 KIAS (flaps UP). 2. Wing Flaps -- 301 (below 85 KIAS). 3. Airspeed -- MAINTAIN 54 KIAS. 4. Power -- REDUCE to idle as obstacle is cleared. 5. Touchdown -- MAIN WHEELS FIRST. 6. Brakes -- APPLY HEAVILY. 7. Wing Flaps -- RETRACT. BALKED LANDING 1. Throttle -- FULL OPEN. 2. Carburetor Heat -- COLD. 3. Wing Flaps -- RETRACT to 201. 4. Airspeed -- 55 KIAS. 5. Wing Flaps -- RETRACT (slowly). AFTER LANDING 1. Wing Flaps -- UP. 2. Carburetor Heat -- COLD. SECURING AIRPLANE 1. Parking Brake -- SET. 2. Radios, Electrical Equipment -- OFF. 3. Mixture -- IDLE CUT-OFF (pull full out). 4. Ignition Switch -- OFF. 5. Master Switch -- OFF. 6. Control Lock -- INSTALL. AMPLIFIED PROCEDURES STARTING ENGINE (Temperatures Above Freezing) During engine starting, open the throttle approximately 1/2 inch. In warm weather, one stroke of the primer should be sufficient. In temperatures near freezing, up to 3 strokes of the primer may be necessary. As the engine starts, slowly adjust the throttle as required for 1000 RPM or less. Page 19 of 63 NOTE The carburetor used on this airplane does not have an accelerator pump; therefore, pumping of the throttle must be avoided during starting because doing so will only cause excessive leaning. Weak intermittent firing followed by puffs of black smoke from the exhaust stack indicates overpriming or flooding. Excess fuel can be cleared from the combustion chambers by the following procedure: set the mixture control in the idle cut-off position, the throttle full open, and crank the engine through several revolutions with the starter. Repeat the starting procedure without any additional priming. If the engine is underprimed (most likely in cold weather with a cold engine) it will not fire at all, and additional priming will be necessary. After starting, if the oil gage does not begin to show pressure within 30 seconds in the summertime and about twice that long in very cold weather, stop the engine and investigate. Lack of oil pressure can cause serious engine damage. After starting, avoid the use of carburetor heat unless icing conditions prevail. NOTE Details concerning cold weather starting and operation at temperatures below freezing may be found under Cold Weather Operation paragraphs in this section. TAXIING Page 20 of 63 When taxiing, it is important that speed and use of brakes be held to a minimum and that all controls be utilized (see Taxiing Diagram, figure 4-2) to maintain directional control and balance. The carburetor heat control knob should be pushed full in during all ground operations unless heat is absolutely necessary. When the knob is pulled out to the heat position, air entering the engine is not filtered. Taxiing over loose gravel or cinders should be done at low engine speed to avoid abrasion and stone damage to the propeller tips. The nose wheel is designed to automatically center straight ahead when the nose strut is fully extended. In the event the nose strut is overinflated and the airplane is loaded to a rearward center of gravity position, it may be necessary to partially compress the strut to permit steering. This can be accomplished prior to taxiing by depressing the airplane nose (by hand) or during taxi by sharply applying brakes. BEFORE TAKEOFF WARM-UP Most of the warm-up will have been conducted during taxi, and additional warm-up before takeoff should be restricted to the checklist procedures. Since the engine is closely cowled for efficient in-flight cooling, precautions should be taken to avoid overheating on the ground. MAGNETO CHECK The magneto check should be made at 1700 RPM as follows. Move ignition switch first to R position and note RPM. Next move switch back to BOTH to clear the other set of plugs. Then move switch to the L position, note RPM and return the switch to the BOTH position. RPM drop should not exceed 125 RPM on either magneto or show greater than 50 RPM differential between magnetos. If there is a doubt concerning operation of the ignition system, RPM checks at higher engine speeds will usually confirm whether a deficiency exists. An absence of RPM drop may be an indication of faulty grounding of one side of the ignition system or should be cause for suspicion that the magneto timing is set in advance of the setting specified. ALTERNATOR CHECK Prior to flights where verification of proper alternator and alternator control unit operation is essential (such as night or instrument flights), a positive verification can be made by loading the electrical system momentarily (3 to 5 seconds) with the landing light, or by operating the wing flaps during the engine runup (1700 RPM). The ammeter will remain within a needle width of its initial position if the alternator and alternator control unit are operating properly. TAKEOFF POWER CHECK It is important to check full-throttle engine operation early in the takeoff run. Any sign of rough engine operation or sluggish engine acceleration is good cause for discontinuing the takeoff. If this occurs, you are justified in making a thorough full-throttle static runup before another takeoff is attempted. The engine should run smoothly and turn approximately 2280 to 2380 RPM with carburetor heat off and mixture leaned to maximum RPM. Full throttle runups over loose gravel are especially harmful to propeller tips. When takeoffs must be made over a gravel surface, it is very important that the throttle be advanced slowly. This allows the airplane to start rolling before high RPM is developed, and the gravel will be blown back of the propeller rather than pulled into it. When unavoidable small dents appear in the propeller blades, they should be immediately corrected as described in Section 8 under Propeller Care. Prior to takeoff from fields above 3000 feet elevation, the mixture should be leaned to .give maximum RPM in a full-throttle, static runup. After full throttle is applied, adjust the throttle friction lock clockwise to prevent the throttle from creeping back from a maximum power position. Similar friction lock adjustment should be made as required in other flight conditions to maintain a fixed throttle setting. WING FLAP SETTINGS Normal takeoffs are accomplished with wing flaps 0°- 10°. Using 10° wing flaps reduces the total distance over an obstacle by approximately 10%. Flap deflections greater than 101 are not approved for takeoff. If 10° wing flaps are used for takeoff, they should be left down until all obstacles are cleared and a safe flap retraction speed of 60 KIAS is reached. On a short field, 10° wing flaps and an obstacle clearance speed of 54 KIAS should be used. This speed provides the best overall climb speed to clear obstacles when taking into account turbulence often found near ground level. Page 21 of 63 Soft or rough field takeoffs are performed with 10° wing flaps by lifting the airplane off the ground as soon as practical in a slightly tail- low attitude. If no obstacles are ahead, the airplane should be leveled off immediately to accelerate to a higher climb speed. CROSSWIND TAKEOFF Takeoffs into strong crosswinds normally are performed with the minimum flap setting necessary for the field length, to minimize the drift angle immediately after takeoff. With the ailerons partially deflected into the wind, the airplane is accelerated to a speed slightly higher than normal, and then pulled off abruptly to prevent possible settling back to the runway while drifting. When clear of the ground, make a coordinated turn into the wind to correct for drift. ENROUTE CLIMB Normal climbs are performed with flaps up and full throttle and at speeds 5 to 10 knots higher than best rate-of-climb speeds for the best combination of performance, visibility and engine cooling. The mixture should be full rich below 3000 feet and may be leaned above 3000 feet for smoother operation or to obtain maximum RPM. For maximum rate of climb, use the best rate-of-climb speeds shown in the Rate Of Climb chart in Section 5. If an obstruction dictates the use of a steep climb angle, the best angle-of-climb speed should be used with flaps up and maximum power. Climbs at speeds lower than the best rate-of-climb speed should be of short duration to improve engine cooling. CRUISE Normal cruising is performed between 55% and 75% power. The engine RPM and corresponding fuel consumption for various altitudes can be determined by using your Cessna Power Computer or the data in Section 5. NOTE Cruising should be done at 65% to 75% power until a total of 50 hours has accumulated or oil consumption has stabilized. This is to ensure proper seating of the rings and is applicable to new engines, and engines in service following cylinder replacement or top overhaul of one or more cylinders. The data in Section 5 shows the increased range and improved fuel economy that is obtainable when operating at lower power settings. The use of lower power settings and the selection of cruise altitude on the basis of the most favorable wind conditions are significant factors that should be considered on every trip to reduce fuel consumption. 75 % POWER 65 % POWER 55 % POWER Altitude KTAS NMPG KTAS NMPG KTAS NMPG Sea level 100 16.4 94 17.8 87 19.3 4000 feet 103 17.0 97 18.4 89 19.8 8000 feet 107 17.6 100 18.9 91 20.4 Standard Conditions Zero Wind Figure 4-3. Cruise Performance Table The Cruise Performance Table, figure 4-3, shows the true airspeed and nautical miles per gallon during cruise for various altitudes and percent powers. This table should be used as a guide, along with the available winds aloft information, to determine the most favorable altitude and power setting for a given trip. To achieve the recommended lean mixture fuel consumption figures shown in Section 5, the mixture should be leaned until engine RPM peaks and drops 25-50 RPM. At lower powers it may be necessary to enrich the mixture slightly to obtain smooth operation. Carburetor ice, as evidenced by an unexplained drop in RPM, can be removed by application of full carburetor heat. Upon regaining the original RPM (with heat off), use the minimum amount of heat (by trial and error) to prevent ice from forming. Since the heated air causes a richer mixture, readjust the mixture setting when carburetor heat is to be used continuously in cruise flight. The use of full carburetor heat is recommended during flight in very heavy rain to avoid the possibility of engine stoppage due to excessive water ingestion. The mixture setting should be readjusted for smoothest operation. FUEL SAVINGS PROCEDURES FOR FLIGHT TRAINING OPERATIONS For best fuel economy during flight training operations, the following procedures are recommended. 1. Use 55% to 60% power while transitioning to and from the practice area (approximately 2200-2250 RPM). 2. Lean the mixture for maximum RPM during climbs above 3000 feet. The mixture may be left leaned for practicing such maneuvers as stalls. 3. Lean the mixture for maximum RPM during all operations at any altitude, including those below 3000 feet, when using 75% or less power. Page 22 of 63 NOTE When cruising at 75% or less power, the mixture may be further leaned until the RPM peaks and drops 25-50 RPM. This is especially applicable to cross-country training flights, but may also be practiced during transition flights to and from the practice area. Using the above-recommended procedures can provide fuel savings of up to 13% when compared to typical training operations at a full rich mixture. STALLS The stall characteristics are conventional for the flap-up and flaps-down condition. The stall warning horn produces a steady signal 5 to 10 knots before the actual stall is reached and remains on until the airplane flight attitude is changed. Stall speeds for various combinations of flap setting and bank angle are summarized in Section 5, SPINS Intentional spins are approved in this airplane (see Section 2). Before attempting to perform spins, however, several items should be carefully considered to assure a safe flight. No spins should be attempted without first having received dual instruction in both spin entries and spin recoveries from a qualified instructor who is familiar with the spin characteristics of the Cessna 152. The cabin should be clean and all loose equipment (including the microphone) should be stowed. For a solo flight in which spins will be conducted, the copilot's seat belt and shoulder harness should be secured. Spins with baggage loadings or occupied child's seat are not approved. The seat belts and shoulder harnesses should be adjusted to provide proper restraint during all anticipated flight conditions. However, care should be taken to ensure that the pilot can easily reach the flight controls and produce maximum control travels. It is recommended that, where feasible, entries be accomplished at high enough altitude that recoveries are completed 4000 feet or more above ground level. At least 1000 feet of altitude loss should be allowed for a 1-turn spin and recovery, while a 6-turn spin and recovery may require somewhat more than twice that amount. For example, the recommended entry altitude for a 6-turn spin would be 6000 feet above ground level. In any case, entries should be planned so that recoveries are completed well above the minimum 1500 feet above ground level required by FAR 91.71. Another reason for using high altitudes for practicing spins is that a greater field of view is provided which will assist in, maintaining pilot orientation. The normal entry is made from a power-off stall. As the stall is approached, the elevator control should be smoothly pulled to the full aft position. Just prior to reaching the stall "break", rudder control in the desired direction of the spin rotation should be applied so that full rudder deflection is reached almost simultaneously with reaching full aft elevator. A slightly greater rate of deceleration than for normal stall entries or the use of partial power at the entry will assure more consistent and positive entries to the spin. Both elevator and rudder controls should be held full with the spin until the spin recovery is initiated. An inadvertent relaxation of either of these controls could result in the development of a nose-down spiral. NOTE Careful attention should be taken to assure that the aileron control is neutral during all phases of the spin since any aileron deflection in the direction of the spin may alter the spin characteristics by increasing the rotation rate and changing the pitch attitude. For the purpose of training in spins and spin recoveries, a I to 2-turn spin is adequate and should be used. Up to 2 turns, the spin will progress to a fairly rapid rate of rotation and a steep attitude. Application of recovery controls will produce prompt recoveries of from 1/4 to 1/2 of a turn. If the spin is continued beyond the 2 to 3-turn range, some change in character of the spin may be noted. Rotation rates may vary and some additional sideslip may be felt. Normal recoveries from such extended spins may take up to a full turn or more. Regardless of how many turns the spin is held or how it is entered, the following recovery technique should be used: 1. VERIFY THAT AILERONS ARE NEUTRAL AND THROTTLE IS IN IDLE POSITION. 2. APPLY AND HOLD FULL RUDDER OPPOSITE TO THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION. 3. JUST AFTER THE RUDDER REACHES THE STOP, MOVE THE CONTROL WHEEL BRISKLY FORWARD FAR ENOUGH TO BREAK THE STALL. Full down elevator may be required at aft center of gravity loadings to assure optimum recoveries. 4. HOLD THESE CONTROL INPUTS UNTIL ROTATION STOPS. Premature relaxation of the control inputs may extend the recovery. 5. AS ROTATION STOPS, NEUTRALIZE RUDDER, AND MAKE A SMOOTH RECOVERY FROM THE RESULTING DIVE. NOTE Page 23 of 63 If disorientation precludes a visual determination of the direction of rotation, the symbolic airplane in the turn coordinator may be referred to for this information. Variations in basic airplane rigging or in weight and balance due to installed equipment or cockpit occupancy can cause differences in behavior, particularly in extended spins. These differences are normal and will result in variations in the spin characteristics and in the recovery lengths for spins of more than 3 turns. However, the above recovery procedure should always be used and will result in the most expeditious recovery from any spin. Intentional spins with flaps extended are prohibited, since the high speeds which may occur during recovery are potentially damaging to the flap/wing structure. LANDING Normal landing approaches can be made with power-on or power-off at speeds of 60 to 70 KIAS with flaps up, and 55 to 65 KIAS with flaps down. Surface winds and air turbulence are usually the primary factors in determining the most comfortable approach speeds. Actual touchdown should be made with power-off and on the main wheels first. The nose wheel should be lowered smoothly to the runway as speed is diminished. SHORT FIELD LANDING For a short field landing in smooth air conditions, make an approach at 54 KIAS with 301 flaps using enough power to control the glide path. After all approach obstacles are cleared, progressively reduce power and maintain 54 KIAS by lowering the nose of the airplane. Touchdown should be made with power-off and on the main wheels first. Immediately after touchdown, lower the nose wheel and apply heavy braking as required. For maximum brake effectiveness, retract the flaps, hold full nose-up elevator, and apply maximum brake pressure without sliding the tires. Slightly higher approach speeds should be used under turbulent air conditions. CROSSWIND LANDING When landing in a strong crosswind, use the minimum flap setting required for the field length. Use a wing low, crab, or a combination method of drift correction and land in a nearly level attitude. BALKED LANDING In a balked landing (go-around) climb, the wing flap setting should be reduced to 200 immediately after full power is applied. Upon reaching a safe airspeed, the flaps should be slowly retracted to the full up position. COLD WEATHER OPERATION Prior to starting with temperatures below freezing, it is advisable to pull the propeller through several times by hand to "break loose" or "limber" the oil, thus conserving battery energy. NOTE When pulling the propeller through by hand, treat it as if the ignition switch is turned on. A loose or broken ground wire on either magneto could cause the engine to fire. Preheat is generally required with outside air temperatures below -18'C (OIF) and is recommended when temperatures are below -7'C (20'F) Cold weather starting procedures are as follows: With Preheat. Ignition Switch -- OFF. Throttle -- CLOSED. Mixture -- IDLE CUT-OFF. Parking Brake -- SET. Propeller -- PULL through by hand several revolutions. NOTE Caution should be used to ensure the brakes are set or a qualified person is at the controls. Mixture RICH. Throttle OPEN 1/2 to 3/4 INCH. Page 24 of 63 Prime -- 2 to 4 STROKES depending on temperature. Primer -- RECHARGE for priming after engine start. Propeller Area -- CLEAR. Master Switch -- ON. Ignition Switch -- START (release when engine starts). Prime -- AS REQUIRED until the engine runs smoothly- Throttle -- ADJUST for 1200 to 1500 RPM for approximately one minute after which the RPM can be lowered to 1000 or less. Oil Pressure -- CHECK. Primer -- LOCK. Without Preheat: The procedure for starting without preheat is the same as with preheat except the engine should be primed an additional three strokes just prior to pulling the propeller through by hand. Carburetor heat should be applied after the engine starts. Leave the carburetor heat on until the engine run., smoothly. NOTE If the engine fires but does not start or continue running, repeat the above starting procedure beginning with step 6. If the engine does not start during the first few attempts, or if engine firing diminishes in strength, it is possible that the spark plugs have been frosted over, in which case preheat must be used before another start is attempted. NOTE During cold weather operations, no indication will be apparent on the oil temperature gage prior to takeoff if outside air temperatures are very cold. After a suitable warm-up period (2 to 5 minutes at 1000 RPM), accelerate the engine several times to higher engine RPM. If the engine accelerates smoothly and oil pressure remains normal and steady, the airplane is ready for takeoff When operating in temperatures below -18°C, avoid using partial carburetor heat. Partial heat may increase the carburetor air temperature to the 0°C to 21°C range, where icing is critical under certain atmospheric conditions. NOISE ABATEMENT Increased emphasis on improving the quality of our environment requires renewed effort on the part of all pilots to minimize the effect of airplane noise on the public. We, as pilots, can demonstrate our concern for environmental improvement, by application of the following suggested procedures, and thereby tend to build public support for aviation: Pilots operating aircraft under VFR over outdoor assemblies of persons, recreational and park areas, and other noise-sensitive areas should make every effort to fly not less than 2000 feet above the surface, weather permitting, even though flight at a lower level may be consistent with the provisions of government regulations. During departure from or approach to an airport, climb after takeoff and descent for landing should be made so as to avoid prolonged flight at low altitude near noise-sensitive areas. NOTE The above recommended procedures do not apply where they would conflict with Air Traffic Control clearances or instructions, or where, in the pilot's judgment, an altitude of less than 2000 feet is necessary for him to adequately exercise his duty to see and avoid other aircraft. The certificated noise level for the Model 152 at 1670 pounds maximum weight is 64.8 dB(A). No determination has been made by the Federal Aviation Administration that the noise levels of this airplane are or should be acceptable or unacceptable for operation at, into, or out of, any airport. Page 25 of 63 SECTION 5 PERFORMANCE TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction .......................................................................................................... 5-2 Use of Performance Charts ................................................................................... 5-2 Sample Problem.................................................................................................... 5-2 Takeoff ................................................................................................................. 5-2 Cruise.................................................................................................................... 5-3 Fuel Required ....................................................................................................... 5-4 Landing................................................................................................................. 5-5 Demonstrated Operating Temperature.................................................................. 5-5 Figure 5-1, Airspeed Calibration .......................................................................... 5-5 Figure 5-2, Temperature Conversion Chart... ....................................................... 5-6 Figure 5-3, Stall Speeds........................................................................................ 5-7 Figure 5-4, Takeoff Distance ................................................................................ 5-9 Figure 5-5, Rate Of Climb – Maximum.............................................................. 5-10 Figure 5-6, Time, Fuel, And Distance To Climb . .............................................. 5-12 Figure 5-7, Cruise Performance.......................................................................... 5-12 Figure 5-8, Range Profile –( 24.5 Gallons)......................................................... 5-14 Figure 5-9, Endurance Profile – (24.5 Gallons ) ................................................ 5-15 Figure 5-10, Landing Distance ........................................................................... 5-16 Figure 5-11, Standard Temperature .................................................................... 5-17 Page 26 of 63 INTRODUCTION Performance data charts on the following pages are presented so that you may know what to expect from the airplane under various conditions, and also, to facilitate the planning of flights in detail and with reasonable accuracy. The data in the charts has been computed from actual flight tests with the airplane and engine in good condition and using average piloting techniques. It should be noted that the performance information presented in the range and endurance profile charts allows for 45 minutes reserve fuel based on 45% power. Fuel flow data for cruise is based on the recommended lean mixture setting. Some indeterminate variables such as mixture leaning technique, fuel metering characteristics, engine and propeller condition, and air turbulence may account for variations of 10% or more in range and endurance. Therefore, it is important to utilize all available information to estimate the fuel required for the particular flight. USE OF PERFORMANCE CHARTS Performance data is presented in tabular or graphical form to illustrate the effect of different variables. Sufficiently detailed information is provided in the tables so that conservative values can be selected and used to determine the particular performance figure with reasonable accuracy. SAMPLE PROBLEM The following sample flight problem utilizes information from the various charts to determine the predicted performance data for a typical flight. The following information is known: AIRPLANE CONFIGURATION Takeoff weight 1610 Pounds Usable fuel 24.5 Gallons TAKEOFF CONDITIONS Field pressure altitude 1500 Feet Temperature 28'C (16'C above standard) Wind component along runway 12 Knot Headwind Field length 3500 Feet CRUISE CONDITIONS Total distance 320 Nautical Miles Pressure altitude 5500 Feet Temperature 20'C (16'C above standard) Expected wind enroute 10 Knot Headwind LANDING CONDITIONS Field pressure altitude 2000 Feet Temperature 250C Field length 3000 Feet TAKEOFF The takeoff distance chart, figure 5-4, should be consulted, keeping in mind that the distances shown are based on the short field technique. Conservative distances can be established by reading the chart at the next higher value of altitude and temperature. For example, in this particular sample problem, the takeoff distance information presented for a pressure altitude of 2000 feet and a temperature of 30'C should be used and results in the following: Ground roll 980 Feet Total distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle 1820 Feet These distances are well within the available takeoff field length. However, a correction for the effect of wind may be made based on Note 3 of the takeoff chart. The correction for a 12 knot headwind is: (12 Knots/9 Knots) X .10% = 13% Decrease This results in the following distances, corrected for wind: Ground roll, zero wind 980 Decrease in ground roll (980 feet x 13%) 127 Corrected ground roll 853 Feet Total distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle, zero wind 1820 Decrease in total distance (1820 feet x 13%) 237 Page 27 of 63 Corrected total distance to clear 50-foot obstacle 1583 Feet CRUISE The cruising altitude should be selected based on a consideration of trip length, winds aloft, and the airplane's performance. A typical cruising altitude and the expected wind enroute have been given for this sample problem. However, the power setting selection for cruise must be determined based on several considerations. These include the cruise performance characteristics presented in figure 5-7, the range profile chart presented in figure 5-8. and the endurance profile chart presented in figure 5-9. The relationship between power and range is illustrated by the range profile chart. Considerable fuel savings and longer range result when lower power settings are used. The range profile chart indicates that use of 65% power at 5500 feet yields a predicted range of 375 nautical miles under no wind conditions. The endurance profile chart, figure 5-9, shows a corresponding 3.9 hours. The range figure of 375 nautical miles is corrected to account for the expected 1.0 knot headwind at 5500 feet. Range, zero wind 375 Decrease in range due to wind (3.9 hours x 10 knot headwind) 39 Corrected range 336 Nautical Miles This indicates that the trip can be made without a fuel stop using approximately 65 % power. The cruise performance chart, figure 5-7, is entered at 6000 feet altitude and 20'C above standard temperature. These values most nearly correspond to the planned altitude and expected temperature conditions. The engine speed chosen is 2400 RPM, which results in the following: Power 640/c True airspeed 99 Knots Cruise fuel flow 5.2 GPH The power computer may be used to determine power and fuel consumption more accurately during the flight. FUEL REQUIRED The total fuel requirement for the flight may be estimated using the performance information in figures 5-6 and 5-7. For this sample problem, figure 5-6 shows that a climb from 2000 feet to 6000 feet requires 1 gallon of fuel. The corresponding distance during the climb is 9 nautical miles. These values are for a standard temperature (as shown on the climb chart' and are sufficiently accurate for most Right planning purposes. However, a further correction for the effect of temperature may be made as noted on the climb chart. The approximate effect of a non-standard temperature is to increase the time, fuel, and distance by 1001o for each IOIC above standard temperature, due to the lower rate of climb. In this case, assuming a temperature 160C above standard, the correction would be: 16° C / 10°C = 16% Increase With this factor included, the fuel estimate would be calculated as follows: Fuel to climb, standard temperature 1.0 gallon Increase due to non-standard temperature (1.0 - 16%) 0.2 gallon Corrected fuel to climb 1.2 gallon Using a similar procedure for the distance to climb results in 10 nautical miles. The resultant cruise distance is: Total distance 320 Climb distance -10 Cruise distance 310 Nautical Miles With an expected 10 knot headwind, the ground speed for cruise is predicted to be: 99 – 10 = 89 knots Therefore, the time required for the cruise portion of the trip is: Page 28 of 63 310 Nautical Miles / 89 Knots = 3.5 Hours The fuel required for cruise is: 3.5 hours x 5.2 gallons/hour = 18.2 Gallons The total estimated fuel required is as follows: Engine start, taxi, and takeoff 0.8 Climb 1.2 Cruise 18.2 Total fuel required20.2 Gallons This will leave a fuel reserve of: 24.5 -20.2 4.3 Gallons Once the flight is underway, ground speed checks will provide a more accurate basis for estimating the time enroute and the corresponding fuel required to complete the trip with ample reserve. LANDING A procedure similar to takeoff should be used for estimating the landing distance at the destination airport. Figure 5-10 presents landing distances for various airport altitude and temperature combinations using the short field technique. The distances corresponding to 2000 feet and 30°C are as follows: Ground roll 535 Feet Total distance to clear a 50-foot obstacle 1300 Feet A correction for the effect of wind may be made based on Note 2 of the landing chart using the same procedure as outlined for takeoff. DEMONSTRATED OPERATING TEMPERATURE Satisfactory engine cooling has been demonstrated for this airplane with an outside air temperature 23'C above standard. This is not to be considered as an operating limitation. Reference should be made to Section 2 for engine operating limitations. AIRSPEED CALIBRATION CONDITIONS: Power required for level flight or maximum rated RPM dive. KIAS 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 Flaps Up KCAS 46 53 60 69 78 88 97 107 117 127 136 Flaps 10° JCAS 44 52 61 70 80 84 Flaps 30° JCAS 43 51 61 71 82 87 Figure 5-1. Airspeed Calibration Page 29 of 63 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART Figure 5-2 Temperature Conversion Chart STALL SPEEDS Conditions: Power Off Notes: Altitude loss during a stall recovery may be as much as 160 feet KIAS values are approximate and are base on airspeed calibration data with power off. MOST REARWARD CENETER OF GRAVITY ANGLE OF BANK Gross Weight Flap Setting 0º 30º 45º 60º KIAS KCAS KIAS KCAS KIAS KCAS KIAS KCAS UP 36 46 39 49 43 55 51 65 10º 36 43 39 46 43 51 51 61 1670 lbs. 30º 31 41 33 44 37 49 44 58 MOST FORWARD CENETER OF GRAVITY ANGLE OF BANK Gross Weight Flap Setting 0º 30º 45º 60º KIAS KCAS KIAS KCAS KIAS KCAS KIAS KCAS UP 40 48 43 52 48 57 57 68 10º 40 46 43 49 48 55 57 65 1670 lbs. 30º 35 43 38 46 42 51 49 51 Figure 5-3 Stall Speeds Page 30 of 63 TAKE – OFF DISTANCE SHORT FIELD CONDITIONS: Flaps 10º Full Throttle Prior to Brake Release Paved, Level Dry Runway Zero Wind Notes: 1. Short Field technique as specified in Section 4 2. Prior to takeoff from fields above 3,000' elevation, the mixture should be leaned to give maximum RPM at full throttle, static runup 3. Decrease distances 10% for each 9 knots of headwind. For operation with tailwinds up to 10 knots, increase distances by 10% for each 2 knots 4. For operation on a dry grass runway, increase distances by 15% of the "ground roll" figure. 0°C 10°C 20°C 30°C 40°C WT LBS Takeoff Speed KIAS Lift off at 50' Press Alt Ft GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. 1670 50 64 S.L. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 640 705 775 885 940 1040 1145 1270 1405 1190 1310 1445 1600 1775 1970 2200 2470 2800 695 765 840 925 1020 1125 1245 1375 1525 1290 1420 1565 1730 1920 2140 2395 2705 3080 755 825 910 1000 1100 1215 1345 1490 1655 1390 1530 1690 1870 2080 2320 2610 2960 3395 810 890 980 1080 1190 1315 1455 1615 1795 1495 1645 1820 2020 2250 2525 2855 3255 3765 875 960 1055 1165 1285 1420 1570 1745 1940 1605 1770 1960 2185 2440 2750 3125 3590 4195 Figure 5-4 Takeoff Distance RATE OF CLIMB DATA MAXIMUM Conditions: Flaps Up Full Throttle NOTE: Mixture Leaned above 3000 for maximum RPM RATE OF CLIMB FPM WT LBS PRESS ALT FT CLIMB SPEED KIAS -20°F 0°F 20°F 40°F 1670 S.L. 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 67 66 65 63 62 61 60 835 735 635 535 440 340 245 765 670 570 475 380 285 190 700 600 505 415 320 230 135 630 535 445 355 265 175 85 Figure 5-5 Rate of Climb Page 31 of 63 TIME FUEL AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB Conditions Flaps Up Full Throttle Standard Temperature NOTES: 1. Add .08 gallon of fuel for engine start, taxi, and takeoff allowance 2. Mixture leaned above 3,000 ft for maximum RPM 3. Increase time, fuel and distance by 10% for each 10 degrees above standard temperature 4. Distances shown are based on zero wind FROM SEA LEVEL WT LBS PRESSURE ALTITUDE FT TEMPE ºC CLIMB SPEED KIAS RATE OF CLIMB FPM TIME MIN FUEL USED GALLONS DISTANCE NM 1670 S.L. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 -1 -3 -5 -7 -9 67 66 66 65 65 64 63 63 62 62 61 61 60 715 675 630 590 550 505 465 425 380 340 300 255 215 0 1 3 5 6 8 10 13 15 18 21 25 29 0 .2 .4 .7 .9 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.0 3.4 0 2 3 5 7 9 12 14 17 21 25 29 34 Figure 5-6 Time, Fuel, and Distance to Climb Page 32 of 63 CRUISE PERFORMANCE 20°C BELOW STANDARD TEMP STANDARD TEMP 20°C ABOVE STANDARD TEMP PRESSURE ALTITUDE FT RPM % bhp KTAS GPH % bhp KTAS GPH % bhp KTAS GPH 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 2450 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 2550 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2450 2400 2300 2200 2100 --- 71 62 55 49 --- 76 67 60 53 48 -- 72 64 57 51 46 -- 76 68 61 55 49 72 65 58 53 48 65 62 56 51 47 -- 97 92 87 81 -- 102 96 91 86 81 -- 101 96 90 85 80 -- 105 100 95 90 84 105 99 94 89 83 101 99 93 88 82 -- 5..7 5.1 4.5 4.1 -- 6.1 5.4 4.8 4.4 3.9 -- 5.8 5.2 4.6 4.2 3.8 -- 6.2 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.1 5.8 5.3 4.7 4.3 4.0 5.3 5.0 4.6 4.2 3.9 75 66 59 53 47 75 71 63 56 51 46 75 67 60 554 49 45 75 71 64 58 52 48 68 61 56 51 46 62 59 54 49 45 101 96 91 86 80 103 101 95 90 85 80 105 100 95 89 84 79 107 104 99 94 89 83 103 98 93 88 82 100 97 92 87 81 6.1 5.4 4.8 4.3 3.9 6.1 5.7 5.1 4.6 4.2 3.8 6.1 5.4 4.9 4.4 4.0 3.7 6.1 5.8 5.2 4.7 4.3 3.9 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.2 3.9 5.0 4.8 4.4 4.1 3.8 70 63 56 51 46 70 67 60 54 49 45 71 64 57 52 48 44 71 67 61 55 51 46 64 58 53 49 45 59 56 52 48 44 101 95 90 85 79 102 100 95 89 84 79 104 99 94 88 83 77 106 103 98 93 87 82 103 97 92 86 81 99 96 91 85 79 5.7 5.1 4.6 4.2 3.8 5.7 5.4 4.9 4.4 4.0 3.7 5.7 5.2 4.7 4.3 3.9 3.6 5.7 5.4 4.9 4.5 4.2 3.8 5.2 4.8 4.4 4.0 3.8 4.8 4.6 4.3 4.0 3.7 Figure 5-7 Cruise Performance Page 33 of 63 RANGE PROFILE 45 MINUTES RESERVE 24.5 GALLONS USABLE FUEL Conditions 1670 Pounds Recommended Lean Mixture for Cruise Standard Temperature Zero Wind NOTES: This chart allows for the fuel used for engine start, taxi, takeoff, and climb, and distance during climb as shown in figure 5-6 Reserve fuel is based on 45 minutes at 45% BHP and is 2.8 gallons Performance is shown for an airplane equipped with speed fairings which increases the cruise speeds by approximately two knots. KTAS Sea Level 4,000 ft 8.000 ft 12,000 ft. 75 % power 100 103 107 102 * 65% power 94 97 100 102 * 55% power 87 89 91 94 45% power 77 78 79 80 * Full Throttle Figure 5-8 Range Profile Page 34 of 63 ENDURANCE PROFILE 45 MINUTES RESERVE 24.5 GALLONS USABLE FUEL Conditions 1670 Pounds Recommended Lean Mixture for Cruise Standard Temperature NOTES: 1. This chart allows for the fuel used for engine start, taxi, takeoff, and climb, and distance during climb as shown in figure 5-6 2. Reserve fuel is based on 45 minutes at 45% BHP and is 2.8 gallons Figure 5-9 Endurance Profile Page 35 of 63 LANDING DISTANCE Conditions Flaps 30º Power Off Maximum Braking Paved, Level, Dry Runway Zero Wind NOTES: 1. Short field technique as specified in Section 4 2. Decrease distances 10% for each 9 knots headwind. For operation with tailwinds up to 10 knots, increase distances by 10% for each 2 knots 3. For operation on a dry, grass runway, increase distances by 45% of the "ground roll" figure/ 0°C 10°C 20°C 30°C 40°C WT LBS Speed at 50' KIAS Press Alt Ft GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. GRND RUN TO CLEAR 50’ OBS. 1670 54 S.L. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 450 465 486 500 520 540 560 585 605 1160 1185 1215 1240 1275 1305 1340 1375 1410 465 486 500 520 540 560 580 605 630 1187 1215 1240 1275 1305 1335 1370 1410 1450 485 500 520 540 560 580 605 625 650 1215 1240 1270 1305 1335 1370 1410 1441 1480 500 520 535 560 580 600 625 660 675 1240 1270 1300 1335 1370 1400 1440 1480 1520 515 535 555 575 600 620 645 670 695 1265 1295 1330 1360 1400 1435 1475 1515 1555 Figure 5-10 Landing distance Page 36 of 63 Standard Temperature Chart (added) Altitude Temp (C) Temp (F) Sea Level 15 59 1,000 13 55.5 2,000 11 52 3,000 9 48.5 4,000 7 45 5,000 5 41.5 6,000 3 38 7,000 1 34.5 8,000 -1 31 9,000 -3 27.5 10,000 -5 24 11,000 -7 20.5 12,000 -9 17 13,000 -11 13.5 14,000 -13 10 15,000 -15 6.5 16,000 -17 3 17,000 -19 -0.5 18,000 -21 -4 19,000 -23 -7.5 20,000 -25 -11 Figure 5-11 - Standard Temperature Page 37 of 63 SECTION 6 WEIGHT & BALANCE / EQUIPMENT LIST TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6-2 Airplane Weighing Procedures............................................................................. 6-2 Weight and Balance.............................................................................................. 6-4 Page 38 of 63 INTRODUCTION This section describes the procedure for establishing the basic empty weight and moment of the airplane. Sample forms are provided for reference. Procedures for calculating the weight and moment for various operations are also provided. It should be noted that specific information regarding the weight, arm, moment and installed equipment list for this airplane can only be found in the appropriate weight and balance records carried in the airplane. It is the responsibility of the pilot to ensure that the airplane is loaded properly. AIRPLANE WEIGHING PROCEDURES 1. Preparation: a. Inflate tires to recommended operating pressures. b. Remove the fuel tank sump quick-drain fittings and fuel line drain plug to drain all fuel. c. Remove oil sump drain plug to drain all oil. d. Move sliding seats to the most forward position. e. Raise flaps to the fully retracted position. f. Place all control surfaces in neutral position. 2. Leveling: a. Place scales under each wheel (500# minimum capacity for scales). b. Deflate nose tire and/ or lower or raise the nose strut to center bubble on level (see figure 6-1). 3. Weighing: a. With the airplane level and brakes released, record the weight shown on each scale. Deduct the tare, if any, from each reading. 4. Measuring: a. Obtain measurement A by measuring horizontally (along the airplane center line) from a line stretched between the main wheel centers to a plumb bob dropped from the firewall. b. Obtain measurement B by measuring horizontally and parallel to the airplane center line, from center of nose wheel axle, left side, to a plumb bob dropped from the line between the main wheel centers. Repeat on right side and average the measurements. 5. Using weights from item 3 and measurements from item 4, the airplane weight and C.G. can be determined. 6. Basic Empty Weight may be determined by completing figure 6-1. Page 39 of 63 Scale Position Scale Reading Tare Symbol Net Weight Left Wheel L Right Wheel R Nose Wheel N Sum of Weights, (as weighted) W ( N ) X ( B ) ( ) X ( ) X=ARM=A- ( w ) = ( ) - ( ) = ( ) IN. Item Weight (Lbs) X C.G. Arm (in.) = Moment/1000 Lb - in. Airplsne Weight (From Iem 5, Page 6-3 -14.7 Add Oil: No Oil Fliter (6 Qts @ 7.5 lb/gal) W\ Oil Fliter (7 qts @ 7.5 lb/gal) -14.7 40.0 Add Unusable Fuel: Std Tanks (1.5 Gal at 6 lb\gal) L. R Tanks (1.5 Gal at 6 lb\gal) 40.0 Equipment Changes Airplane Basic Empty Weight Figure 6-1 Sample Ariplane Weighing Page 40 of 63 WEIGHT AND BALANCE The following information will enable you to operate your Cessna within the prescribed weight and center of gravity limitations. To figure weight and balance, use the Sample Problem, Loading Graph, and Center of Gravity Moment Envelope as follows- Take the basic empty weight and moment from appropriate weight and balance records carried in your airplane, and enter them in the column titled YOUR AIRPLANE on the Sample Loading Problem. NOTE In addition to the basic empty weight and moment noted on these records, the C.G. arm (fuselage station) is also shown, but need not be used on the Sample Loading Problem. The moment which is shown must be divided by 1000 and this value used as the moment/ 1000 on the loading problem. Use the Loading Graph to determine the moment/ 1000 for each additional item to be carried; then list these on the loading problem. NOTE Loading Graph information for the pilot, passengers and baggage is based on seats positioned for average occupants and baggage loaded in the center of the baggage areas as shown on the Loading Arrangements diagram. For loadings which may differ from these, the Sample Loading Problem lists fuselage stations for these items to indicate their forward and aft C.G. range limitation (seat travel and baggage area limitation). Additional moment calculations, based on the actual weight and C.G. arm (fuselage station) of the item being loaded, must be made if the position of the load is different from that shown on the Loading Graph. Total the weights and moments/ 1000 and plot these values on the Center of Gravity Moment Envelope to determine whether the point falls within the envelope, and if the loading is acceptable. Page 41 of 63 SAMPLE AIRPLANE YOUR AIRPLANE SAMPLE LOADING PROBLEM WT (lbs) Moment (lb-in) / 1000) WT (lbs) Moment (lb-in) / 1000) Basic Empty Weight. Use the data pertaining to your airplane as it is presently equipped. Includes unusable fuel and full oil) 1136 34.0 Usable Fuel (At 6 lb \ gal Standard Tanks (24.5 gal maximum 22 -.03 Long Range tanks (37.5 Gal maximum Reduce Fuel (As limited by maximum weight) Pilot and Passenger (station 33 to 41 340 13.3 * Baggage Area 1 station 50 - 76, 120 # max 52 3.3 * Baggage Area 2 station 76 - 94, 40 # max RAMP WEIGHT AND MOMENT 1675 56.8 Fuel allowance for engine start and runup - 5 - 0.2 TAKEOFF WEIGHT AND MOMENT 1670 56.6 Locate this point (1670 at 56.6) on the Center of Gravity envelope chart and since this falls within the envelope, the loading is acceptable. • The maximum allowable combined weight capacity for baggage areas 1 and 2 is 210 pounds Figure 6-6 Sample Loading Problem Page 42 of 63 Figure 6-7 Loading Graph Page 43 of 63 Figure 6-8 Center of Gravity Moment Envelope Figure 6-9 Center of Gravity Limits Page 44 of 63 SECTION 7 Airplane and Systems Descriptions TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction .......................................................................................................... 7-3 Airframe ............................................................................................................... 7-3 Flight Controls...................................................................................................... 7-5 Trim System ............................................................................................... 7-6 Instrument Panel ................................................................................................... 7-8 Ground Control..................................................................................................... 7-9 Wing Flap System ............................................................................................. 7-10 Landing Gear System ......................................................................................... 7-10 Baggage Compartment ....................................................................................... 7-10 Seats .................................................................................................................. 7-10 Seat Belts And Shoulder Harnesses Seat Belts ................................................... 7-11 Seat belts................................................................................................... 7-11 Shoulder Harnesses................................................................................... 7-14 Integrated Seat Belt/Shoulder Harnesses With Inertia Reels .................... 7-14 Entrance Doors And Cabin Windows................................................................. 7-14 Control Locks ..................................................................................................... 7-15 Engine................................................................................................................. 7-15 Engine Controls ........................................................................................ 7-15 Engine Instruments ................................................................................... 7-15 Engine Oil System .................................................................................... 7-15 Ignition-Starter System ............................................................................. 7-16 Air Induction System ................................................................................ 7-16 Exhaust System......................................................................................... 7-16 Carburetor And Priming System............................................................... 7-16 Cooling System......................................................................................... 7-17 Propeller ............................................................................................................. 7-17 Fuel System ........................................................................................................ 7-17 Brake System...................................................................................................... 7-19 Electrical System ................................................................................................ 7-19 Master Switch ........................................................................................... 7-19 Ammeter ................................................................................................... 7-21 Alternator Control Unit And Low-Voltage Warning Light....................... 7-21 Circuit Breakers And Fuses ...................................................................... 7-21 Ground Service Plug Receptacle............................................................... 7-21 Lighting Systems ................................................................................................ 7-22 Exterior Lighting ...................................................................................... 7-22 Interior Lighting........................................................................................ 7-22 Cabin Heating, Ventilating And Defrosting System ........................................... 7-24 Pitot-Static System And Instruments .................................................................. 7-24 Airspeed Indicator .................................................................................... 7-24 Rate-Of-Climb Indicator........................................................................... 7-25 Altimeter................................................................................................... 7-25 Vacuum System And Instruments ...................................................................... 7-25 Attitude Indicator...................................................................................... 7-25 Directional Indicator ................................................................................. 7-25 Suction Gage............................................................................................. 7-26 Stall Warning System ......................................................................................... 7-27 Audio Control Panel ........................................................................................... 7-28 Transmitter Selector Switch...................................................................... 7-29 Audio Selector Switches ........................................................................... 7-30 Automatic Audio Selector Switch............................................................. 7-30 Speaker Sidetone Volume Control...................................................................... 7-30 Microphone-Headset Installations ...................................................................... 7-31 Static Dischargers ............................................................................................... 7-31 Page 45 of 63 INTRODUCTION This section provides description and operation of the airplane and its systems. Some equipment described herein is optional and may not be installed in the airplane. AIRFRAME The airplane is an all-metal, two-place, high-wing, single-engine airplane equipped with tricycle landing gear and designed for general utility purposes. The construction of the fuselage is a conventional formed sheet metal bulkhead, stringer, and skin design referred to as semimonocoque. Major items of structure are the front and rear carry-through spars to which the wings are attached, a bulkhead and forgings for main landing gear attachment at the base of the rear doorposts, and a bulkhead with attaching plates at the base of the forward door posts for the lower attachment of the wing struts. Four engine mount stringers are also attached to the forward doorposts and extend forward to the firewall. The externally braced wings, containing the fuel tanks, are constructed of a front and rear spar with formed sheet metal ribs, doublers, and stringers. The entire structure is covered with aluminum skin. The front spars are equipped with wing-to-fuselage and wing-to-strut attach fittings. The aft spars are equipped with wing-to-fuselage attach fittings, and are partial-span spars. Conventional hinged ailerons and single-slotted flaps are attached to the trailing edge of the wings. The ailerons are constructed of a forward spar containing balance weights, formed sheet metal ribs and "V" type corrugated aluminum skin joined together at the trailing edge. The flaps are constructed basically the same as the ailerons, with the exception of the balance weights and the addition of a formed sheet metal leading edge section. The empennage (tail assembly) consists of a conventional vertical stabilizer, rudder, horizontal stabilizer, and elevator. The vertical stabilizer consists of a spar, formed sheet metal ribs and reinforcements, a wraparound skin panel, formed leading edge skin and a dorsal. The rudder is constructed of a formed leading edge skin containing hinge halves, a wraparound skin panel and ribs, and a formed trailing edge skin with a ground adjustable trim tab at its base. The top of the rudder incorporates a leading edge extension which contains a balance weight. The horizontal stabilizer is constructed of a forward spar, main spar, formed sheet metal ribs and stiffeners, a wrap-around skin panel, and formed leading edge skins. The horizontal stabilizer also contains the elevator trim tab actuator. Construction of the elevator consists of a main spar and bellcrank, left and right wrap-around skin panels, and a formed trailing edge skin on the left half of the elevator; the entire trailing edge of the right half is hinged and forms the elevator trim tab. The leading edge of both left and right elevator tips incorporate extensions which contain balance weights. Page 46 of 63 Page 47 of 63 FLIGHT CONTROLS The airplane's flight control system (see figure 7-1) consists of conventional aileron, rudder, and elevator control surfaces. The control surfaces are manually operated through mechanical linkage using a control wheel for the ailerons and elevator, and rudder/brake pedals for the rudder. Extensions are available for the rudder/ brake pedals. They consist of a rudder pedal face, two spacers and two spring clips. To install an extension, place the clip on the bottom of the extension under the bottom of the rudder pedal and snap the top clip over the top of the rudder pedal. Check that the extension is firmly in place. To remove the extensions, reverse